Chinese Grammar

A beautiful old Italian car

一yī辆liàng漂piāo亮liàng的de古gǔ老lǎo的de意yì大dà利lì车chē

A big red wooden box

一yī个gè大dà的de红hóng色sè的de木mù头tóu箱xiāng子zǐ

Order flexibility

Relatively fixed (modality > evaluation > color > shape > material)

Position

Before noun + 的de

Agreement

No

Multiple adjectives

No strict order, 的de after each

Yesterday he arrived (time)

昨zuó天tiān他tā来lái了le (time usually before subject/verb)

He arrived quickly (manner)

他tā很hěn快kuài地dì来lái了le (很hěn...地dì)

He arrived in Madrid (place)

他tā到dào了le马mǎ德dé里lǐ (到dào = arrive-at)

Formation

adjective as adverb / 地dì after adjective

Position (manner)

Before verb

Position (frequency)

Before verb

John said he would come

约yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái (他tā ambiguous)

John saw himself

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = reflexive)

John's book and Mary's book

约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de (的de = possessive marker, noun omitted)

My friend, the doctor

我wǒ的de朋péng友yǒu，医yī生shēng (comma)

Paris, the capital of France

巴bā黎lí，法fǎ国guó的de首shǒu都dū (comma)

President Biden

拜bài登dēng总zǒng统tǒng (no comma)

Definite singular

这zhè本běn书shū

Indefinite singular

一yī本běn书shū

Definite plural

这zhè些xiē书shū

Completed action

说shuō了le (verb + 了le)

Ongoing action

在zài说shuō / 说shuō着zháo

Habitual action

经jīng常cháng说shuō (adverb)

John saw himself (local binding)

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā (他tā = someone else, ambiguous in context)

Make someone do (force)

让ràng / 叫jiào + verb

Let someone do (permit)

让ràng + verb

Have someone do (arrange)

请qǐng / 让ràng + verb

Counted noun (one book)

一yī本běn书shū (one [CL] book)

Demonstrative + noun

这zhè本běn书shū (this [CL] book)

Gender system

No

I see him

我wǒ看kàn见jiàn他tā

See him!

看kàn见jiàn他tā！

Give it to me

给gěi我wǒ

Single-word switch (noun)

我wǒ要yàocheck一yī下xià (check → English in Chinese)

Phrase-level switch

他tā很hěnbusy (English adjective in Chinese)

Switched verb with native morphology

我wǒ们méndiscuss了le一yī下xià (discuss + 了le Chinese aspect)

I know that he came

我wǒ知zhī道dào他tā来lái了le

I want him to come

我wǒ想xiǎng让ràng他tā来lái

It's important that he study

他tā学xué习xí很hěn重zhòng要yào

Blackboard

黑hēi板bǎn (black + board compound)

Toothbrush

牙yá刷shuā (tooth + brush compound)

Skyscraper

摩mó天tiān楼lóu (touch-sky-building)

Although it rains, I'll go

虽suī然rán下xià雨yǔ，但dàn是shì我wǒ还huán是shì去qù

Even if it rains, I'll go

即jí使shǐ下xià雨yǔ，我wǒ也yě去qù

Despite the rain

尽jìn管guǎn下xià雨yǔ / 不bù顾gù下xià雨yǔ

I speak / He speaks

我wǒ说shuō / 他tā说shuō (no agreement)

The tall boy / The tall girl

高gāo个gè男nán孩hái / 高gāo个gè女nǚ孩hái (no agreement)

The tall boys / The tall girls

高gāo个gè男nán孩hái们mén / 高gāo个gè女nǚ孩hái们mén

I would go

我wǒ会huì去qù

If I had time, I would read

如rú果guǒ我wǒ有yǒu时shí间jiān，我wǒ会huì读dú

If I had studied, I would have passed

如rú果guǒ我wǒ当dāng时shí学xué了le，就jiù会huì过guò了le

Zero conditional (fact)

如rú果guǒ...，就jiù...

First conditional (probable)

如rú果guǒ...，就jiù...

Second conditional (hypothetical)

如rú果guǒ...，就jiù... (context)

And

和hé / 跟gēn / 而ér

But

但dàn是shì / 可kě是shì / 不bù过guò

Or

或huò者zhě / 还huán是shì (in questions)

Total consonant phonemes

~21 (excluding allophones)

Aspiration contrast

Yes (p vs pʰ, t vs tʰ, k vs kʰ, etc.)

Voicing contrast

No (Mandarin has no voiced stops)

John and Mary

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì (和hé = and)

John or Mary

约yuē翰hàn或huò玛mǎ丽lì (或huò = or / 或huò者zhě)

John but not Mary

约yuē翰hàn但dàn不bù是shì玛mǎ丽lì (但dàn/但dàn是shì = but)

I am a doctor

我wǒ是shì医yī生shēng

I am tired

我wǒ累léi了le

I am in Madrid

我wǒ在zài马mǎ德dé里lǐ

The more... the more

越yuè...越yuè

Both... and

既jì...又yòu / 又yòu...又yòu

Neither... nor

既jì不bù...也yě不bù / 不bù...也yě不bù

I gave John a book

我wǒ给gěi了le约yuē翰hàn一yī本běn书shū

I gave a book to John

我wǒ给gěi了le一yī本běn书shū给gěi约yuē翰hàn

Dative shift (alternation)

Limited (给gěi + recipient must be clear)

This (near speaker)

这zhè

That (near listener)

那nà (no distinction)

That (far from both)

那nà (no distinction)

This (near speaker)

这zhè (+ classifier)

That (near listener)

那nà (+ classifier)

That over there (far from both)

那nà (+ distal adverb)

The book (definite)

这zhè本běn书shū (this book) / 那nà本běn书shū (that book)

A book (indefinite)

一yī本běn书shū (one book — numeral)

Some books

一yī些xiē书shū (some books)

Major varieties

Mandarin, Cantonese, Shanghainese (Wu), Hokkien (Min), Hakka, Xiang, Gan, Jin

Mutual intelligibility

Low (Mandarin vs Cantonese = different languages)

Phonological variation

Tone systems differ dramatically; initial/final systems vary

Direct object marking

word order / 把bǎ

Indirect object marking

给gěi + recipient

Double pronouns (IO + DO)

给gěi + 他tā/她tā + 它tā

Come here

过guò来lái

Go there

过guò去qù

Come in

进jìn来lái

Furthermore / Moreover

此cǐ外wài / 而ér且qiě / 再zài说shuō

However / Nevertheless

但dàn是shì / 不bù过guò / 然rán而ér

Therefore / Thus

因yīn此cǐ / 所suǒ以yǐ / 于yú是shì

I don't know anything

我wǒ什shí么mó都dū不bù知zhī道dào

Nobody never came

谁shuí都dū没méi来lái过guò

I don't need nothing

我wǒ什shí么mó都dū不bù需xū要yào

Subject omission

Very common (context-dependent)

Object omission

Very common (context-dependent)

Verb omission

Common in responses and coordinate clauses

It was John who left

是shì约yuē翰hàn走zǒu的de

It was yesterday that he left

他tā是shì昨zuó天tiān走zǒu的de

What I want is peace

我wǒ要yào的de是shì和hé平píng

John is as tall as Mary

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì一yī样yàng高gāo (和hé...一yī样yàng)

John is not as tall as Mary

约yuē翰hàn不bù如rú玛mǎ丽lì高gāo (不bù如rú = not as)

John runs as fast as Mary

约yuē翰hàn跑pǎo得dé和hé玛mǎ丽lì一yī样yàng快kuài (和hé...一yī样yàng)

Primary ancestor

Old Chinese (上shàng古gǔ汉hàn语yǔ)

Written tradition age

~3,300 years (Oracle Bone Script)

Vocabulary layers

Classical Chinese + Buddhist Sanskrit loans + modern Western calques

I see that he left

我wǒ看kàn见jiàn他tā走zǒu了le

I heard he left

听tīng说shuō他tā走zǒu了le

It seems he left

好hǎo像xiàng他tā走zǒu了le

What a beautiful day!

多duō好hǎo的de天tiān气qì啊ā！

How tall he is!

他tā多duō高gāo啊ā！

How many books!

这zhè么mó多duō书shū啊ā！

There is/are (existence)

有yǒu

Location (to be at)

在zài

Possession (to have)

有yǒu

There is a book

有yǒu一yī本běn书shū

There are many people

有yǒu很hěn多duō人rén

There isn't any water

没méi有yǒu水shuǐ

Actual

实shí际jì (actual/real); 现xiàn在zài (current)

Embarrassed / Embarazada

尴gān尬gà (embarrassed); 怀huái孕yùn (pregnant)

Library / Librería

图tú书shū馆guǎn (library); 书shū店diàn (bookstore)

I want to leave (to-infinitive = non-finite)

我wǒ想xiǎng走zǒu (走zǒu = same form as finite)

Leaving early is wise (gerund = non-finite subject)

早zǎo走zǒu是shì明míng智zhì的de (verb as topic, no non-finite form)

Seen from above (past participle = non-finite)

从cóng上shàng面miàn看kàn (verb as modifier, no participle form)

It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)

是shì约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò的de (是shì...的de cleft)

JOHN broke it (stress)

是shì约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò的de / 约yuē翰hàn才cái打dǎ破pò的de (是shì/才cái for focus)

It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)

约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò的de是shì花huā瓶píng (verb + 的de是shì + focus)

You (singular informal)

你nǐ

You (singular formal)

您nín

You (plural informal)

你nǐ们mén

Spontaneous decision

我wǒ忘wàng了le！我wǒ现xiàn在zài就jiù做zuò。

Prediction based on evidence

看kàn那nà些xiē云yún。要yào下xià雨yǔ了le。

Planned intention

明míng年nián我wǒ要yào学xué医yī学xué。

Nominative (subject)

我wǒ, 你nǐ, 他tā, 她tā (no change)

Accusative (direct object)

我wǒ, 你nǐ, 他tā, 她tā (no change)

Dative (indirect object)

给gěi他tā/她tā (preposition-like 给gěi)

System type

None (no noun gender)

Articles agree

No (no articles)

Adjectives agree

No

Future from 'go'

要yào (originally 'want/need') + verb (我wǒ要yào吃chī = I will eat)

Progressive from locative

在zài (originally 'be at/exist') + verb (我wǒ在zài吃chī = I am eating)

Perfect from 'have'

了le (evolved from verb 'finish/complete')

Maybe / perhaps

也yě许xǔ / 可kě能néng / 大dà概gài

Kind of / sort of

有yǒu点diǎn / 有yǒu些xiē / 稍shāo微wēi

I think / I guess

我wǒ觉jué得dé / 我wǒ想xiǎng / 应yīng该gāi

You (formal)

您nín (formal you)

You (informal)

你nǐ

Mr./Ms. + name

姓xìng + 先xiān生shēng/女nǚ士shì (after name)

It's raining cats and dogs

倾qīng盆pén大dà雨yǔ (倾qīng泻xiè盆pén地dì大dà雨yǔ)

Break a leg (good luck)

加jiā油yóu (add oil = go for it)

Kill two birds with one stone

一yī箭jiàn双shuāng雕diāo (one arrow double eagle)

Positive command (Come!)

来lái！ / 来lái吧bā！

Negative command (Don't come!)

别bié来lái！

Formal request

请qǐng来lái一yī下xià

It is raining

下xià雨yǔ了le

One must study

要yào学xué习xí / 必bì须xū学xué习xí

They say / People say

听tīng说shuō / 据jù说shuō

I don't know if he came

我wǒ不bù知zhī道dào他tā来lái没méi来lái / 我wǒ不bù知zhī道dào他tā有yǒu没méi有yǒu来lái

I wonder where he went

我wǒ想xiǎng知zhī道dào他tā去qù哪nǎ儿ér了le

Tell me what you want

告gào诉sù我wǒ你nǐ想xiǎng要yào什shí么mó

Dictionary form

说shuō、吃chī、住zhù

Infinitive as subject

游yóu泳yǒng很hěn健jiàn康kāng。

Infinitive after modal

我wǒ会huì游yóu泳yǒng。

¡Ouch! (dolor)

哎āi哟yō / 疼téng死sǐ了le

¡Wow! (sorpresa)

哇wā / 太tài棒bàng了le

¡Oh no! (lamentación)

糟zāo了le / 完wán了le

Yes/No question intonation

Rising intonation at end (overlaid on lexical tones)

Wh-question intonation

Falling intonation at end

Statement intonation

Falling intonation at end

Here comes the bus

公gōng交jiāo车chē来lái了le (normal order)

Never have I seen such beauty

我wǒ从cóng来lái没méi见jiàn过guò这zhè么mó美měi的de东dōng西xī (从cóng来lái没méi...过guò)

Only then did I understand

那nà时shí候hòu我wǒ才cái明míng白bái (才cái marks delayed realization)

Take a walk

散sàn步bù (verb) / 散sàn一yī下xià步bù

Take a shower

洗xǐ澡zǎo / 冲chōng个gè澡zǎo

Make a decision

做zuò决jué定dìng

Computer

电diàn脑nǎo (calque: electric brain) / 计jì算suàn机jī (calque: counting machine)

Coffee

咖kā啡fēi — phonetic loan from English

Typhoon

台tái风fēng — native compound

Taller than

比bǐ...高gāo / 更gēng高gāo

As tall as

跟gēn...一yī样yàng高gāo

Less tall than

不bù如rú...高gāo / 没méi有yǒu...高gāo

A cup of tea

一yī杯bēi茶chá

A bottle of water

一yī瓶píng水shuǐ

A piece of cake

一yī块kuài蛋dàn糕gāo

Ability (can)

能néng / 会huì

Possibility (may/might)

可kě能néng

Permission (may)

可kě以yǐ

Statement of fact

她tā学xué医yī学xué。

Wish / desire

我wǒ希xī望wàng你nǐ来lái。

Hypothetical

如rú果guǒ有yǒu钱qián的de话huà，我wǒ就jiù去qù旅lǚ行háng。

cats = cat + -s

猫māo (no plural marking; classifier if counted: 一yī只zhī猫māo)

walked = walk + -ed

走zǒu了le (走zǒu + aspect particle, not inflection)

happiness = happy + -ness

幸xìng福fú感gǎn (compound: happiness-feeling)

Simple negation

不bù / 没méi + verb

Negation of 'to be'

不bù + 是shì

Negation of 'to have'

没méi有yǒu

The good (people/things)

好hǎo的de

What is important

重zhòng要yào的de

To swim is fun

游yóu泳yǒng很hěn有yǒu意yì思sī

The table

桌zhuō子zǐ (no gender)

Two tables

两liǎng张zhāng桌zhuō子zǐ (classifier + noun)

Water (mass noun)

水shuǐ (mass, no count)

1-10 basic

一yī, 二èr, 三sān... 十shí

11-19 (teens)

十shí + number (十shí一yī, 十shí二èr...)

20, 30, 40...

二èr + 十shí, 三sān + 十shí, 四sì + 十shí...

Alphabet size

~50,000 characters; ~3,500 commonly used

Sound-letter correspondence

Characters represent morphemes, not sounds directly

Stress marking

No stress marking; Pinyin uses tone marks

Present participle / gerund

正zhèng在zài看kàn书shū

Past participle

看kàn过guò

Participle as adjective

门mén开kāi着zháo

Completion

了le (我wǒ说shuō了le)

Past experience

过guò (我wǒ说shuō过guò)

Ongoing action

在zài / 着zháo (我wǒ在zài说shuō / 我wǒ说shuō着zháo)

Some of the water

一yī些xiē水shuǐ / 水shuǐ的de一yī部bù分fēn

One of my friends

我wǒ的de一yī个gè朋péng友yǒu / 我wǒ朋péng友yǒu中zhōng的de一yī个gè

A piece of cake

一yī块kuài蛋dàn糕gāo

Basic passive

被bèi + agent + verb

Agent mentioned

被bèi + agent + verb

Passive frequency

Moderate (被bèi marks adversity)

Vowel inventory

~10 vowel qualities (simple) + 4 tones + neutral

Consonant inventory

~25 consonants; no final consonants except -n, -ng, -r

Syllable structure

(C)V(N): maximally CGVN; no complex clusters

Give up (surrender)

放fàng弃qì (compound verb)

Turn on the light

开kāi灯dēng (verb + object)

Turn off the light

关guān灯dēng (verb + object)

Regular plural

No change (书shū = book or books)

Irregular plurals

None (nouns don't change)

Plural agreement on articles

No (no articles)

Cause / reason

因yīn为wéi、由yóu于yú

Recipient / beneficiary

给gěi、为wéi

Medium / transport

通tōng过guò、乘chéng、用yòng

Basic possession (John's book)

约yuē翰hàn的de书shū

Possessive adjective (my)

我wǒ的de

Possessive pronoun (mine)

我wǒ的de

John is tall (adjectival)

约yuē翰hàn很hěn高gāo (no copula; 很hěn = degree)

John is a teacher (nominal)

约yuē翰hàn是shì老lǎo师shī (copula 是shì required)

It rains (verbal, no argument)

下xià雨yǔ (verb-object)

Location (in)

在zài...里lǐ / 在zài

Destination (to)

到dào / 去qù

Origin (from)

从cóng

Completed action

动dòng词cí + 了le

Habitual past

小xiǎo时shí候hòu / 以yǐ前qián + 动dòng词cí

Ongoing interrupted action

正zhèng在zài + 动dòng词cí + 的de时shí候hòu

I speak Spanish

(我wǒ)说shuō西xī班bān牙yá语yǔ — 我wǒ optional in context

He speaks Spanish

(他tā)说shuō西xī班bān牙yá语yǔ — 他tā optional in context

It is raining

下xià雨yǔ了le — no subject

I like it and so does he

我wǒ喜xǐ欢huān，他tā也yě喜xǐ欢huān / 我wǒ喜xǐ欢huān，他tā也yě是shì

I went and he did too

我wǒ去qù了le，他tā也yě去qù了le

Do you like it? Yes, I do.

你nǐ喜xǐ欢huān吗ma？喜xǐ欢huān。 / 喜xǐ欢huān。

Don't go!

别bié走zǒu！ / 不bù要yào走zǒu！

Don't touch!

别bié碰pèng！ / 不bù许xǔ碰pèng！

No smoking

禁jīn止zhǐ吸xī烟yān / 不bù许xǔ抽chōu烟yān

First person singular

我wǒ

Second person singular (informal)

你nǐ

Second person singular (formal)

您nín

Sentence end (statement)

。 (full stop)

Sentence end (question)

？ (full-width question mark)

Sentence end (exclamation)

！ (full-width exclamation mark)

All

都dū / 全quán / 所suǒ有yǒu

Some

一yī些xiē / 有yǒu些xiē / 几jī个gè

Any

任rèn何hé (free-choice) / 什shí么mó (NPI in questions/neg)

You're coming, aren't you?

你nǐ会huì来lái，对duì吧bā？ / 是shì吧bā？

He's not here, is he?

他tā不bù在zài，是shì吧bā？

You understand, right?

你nǐ明míng白bái，对duì不bù对duì？

Yes/no question

你nǐ来lái吗ma？

Wh-question (what)

你nǐ想xiǎng要yào什shí么mó？

Question word order

Keep SVO, add particle

They love each other

他tā们mén互hù相xiāng爱ài

They hit each other

他tā们mén互hù相xiāng打dǎ

We help each other

我wǒ们mén互hù相xiāng帮bāng助zhù

Verbo: echar un vistazo

看kàn看kàn (reduplicación verbal)

Adjetivo: muy rojo

红hóng红hóng的de (AA + 的de)

Adjetivo: de todo tipo

各gè种zhǒng各gè样yàng (AABB)

True reflexive (I wash myself)

我wǒ洗xǐ澡zǎo / 我wǒ洗xǐ自zì己jǐ

Reciprocal (They love each other)

他tā们mén互hù相xiāng爱ài

Inherent reflexive (to fall asleep)

我wǒ睡shuì着zháo了le (no reflexive)

You (singular informal)

你nǐ (informal) / 您nín (formal) — same verb, polite pronoun

Hello

你nǐ好hǎo (neutral) / 您nín好hǎo (formal)

Goodbye

再zài见jiàn (neutral) / 告gào辞cí (formal)

Subject relative (The man who came)

来lái的de人rén

Object relative (The book that I read)

我wǒ读dú的de书shū

Relativized subject kept

No (来lái了le的de人rén — 'came' has no subject)

Ya comí

我wǒ已yǐ经jīng吃chī了le

Todavía no como / Aún no he comido

我wǒ还huán没méi吃chī

Todavía estoy comiendo / Aún como

我wǒ还huán在zài吃chī

Direct: 'I am tired'

Direct: '我wǒ很hěn累léi'

Reported: He said he was tired

他tā说shuō他tā很hěn累léi (no change)

Direct: 'I will go'

Direct: '我wǒ会huì去qù'

So tall that...

太tài高gāo了le，以yǐ至zhì于yú...

So fast that...

这zhè么mó快kuài，以yǐ至zhì于yú...

Such a good book that...

这zhè本běn书shū这zhè么mó好hǎo，以yǐ至zhì于yú...

John broke the vase (agent + patient)

约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng (agent = subject, patient = object)

The vase broke (patient = subject)

花huā瓶píng破pò了le (patient = subject)

John saw Mary (experiencer + stimulus)

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn玛mǎ丽lì (experiencer = subject)

Declarative (statement)

约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū。(SVO, falling intonation)

Yes/No question

约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū吗ma？(particle 吗ma, no inversion)

Wh-question

约yuē翰hàn读dú什shí么mó？(wh in situ, no inversion)

Yes/no question

吗ma / 吧bā / 是shì不bù是shì

Suggestion / soft command

吧bā (let's / I suppose)

Surprise / realization

啊ā / 呀yā / 哇wā

Permanent identity

是shì

Physical location

在zài

Temporary condition

形xíng容róng词cí直zhí接jiē谓wèi语yǔ

Go buy something

去qù买mǎi

Come take a look

过guò来lái看kàn看kàn

Give him a book

给gěi他tā一yī本běn书shū

Dog barking

汪wāng汪wāng

Cat meowing

喵miāo

Rooster crowing

喔ō喔ō啼tí

Request (direct)

给gěi我wǒ书shū (Give me the book)

Request (polite)

能néng不bù能néng给gěi我wǒ书shū？/ 麻má烦fán你nǐ给gěi我wǒ书shū

Apology

对duì不bù起qǐ / 抱bào歉qiàn / 不bù好hǎo意yì思sī

Alphabet type

Logographic script (~50,000 characters, ~3,500 common)

Phoneme-grapheme correspondence

No phonetic component for all characters; some have phonetic radicals

Spelling reform attempts

Simplified characters (1950s-60s); Pinyin romanization (1958)

Duda/incertidumbre

可kě能néng会huì下xià雨yǔ (modal + contexto)

Deseo/anhelo

我wǒ想xiǎng让ràng你nǐ来lái (perifrástico)

Contrario a la realidad (presente)

如rú果guǒ我wǒ有yǒu钱qián，我wǒ就jiù去qù旅lǚ行háng (contexto)

I think that he came

我wǒ想xiǎng他tā来lái了le (no complementizer)

I want him to leave

我wǒ想xiǎng让ràng他tā走zǒu (想xiǎng让ràng + clause)

Because it rained, I stayed

因yīn为wéi下xià雨yǔ，所suǒ以yǐ我wǒ没méi去qù (因yīn为wéi...所suǒ以yǐ...)

The tallest

最zuì高gāo的de (最zuì + adjective + 的de)

The most interesting

最zuì有yǒu趣qù的de

The least important

最zuì不bù重zhòng要yào的de

The student reads a book

学xué生shēng读dú书shū (SVO, no articles)

A book the student reads (topic fronting)

书shū，学xué生shēng读dú (topic-comment)

The tall student quickly reads the book

高gāo个gè学xué生shēng快kuài速sù读dú书shū (modifier-head)

When I arrived

当dāng我wǒ到dào的de时shí候hòu

Before I leave

在zài我wǒ走zǒu之zhī前qián

After he came

他tā来lái以yǐ后hòu

What time is it?

现xiàn在zài几jī点diǎn？

It is 3:15

三sān点diǎn十shí五wǔ分fēn / 三sān点diǎn一yī刻kè

Today is Monday

今jīn天tiān星xīng期qī一yī

Basic sentence structure

Topic-prominent (Topic-Comment)

It's raining

下xià雨yǔ了le (no subject)

This book, I've read

这zhè本běn书shū我wǒ看kàn过guò (normal word order)

Basic word order

Topic-Comment (flexible)

This book, I like

这zhè本běn书shū我wǒ喜xǐ欢huān

Money, I have; time, I don't

钱qián我wǒ有yǒu，时shí间jiān我wǒ没méi有yǒu

I broke the vase / The vase broke

我wǒ打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng / 花huā瓶píng破pò了le

I eat rice / I eat

我wǒ吃chī米mǐ饭fàn / 我wǒ吃chī了le

I read books / I read

我wǒ看kàn书shū / 我wǒ看kàn了le

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

约yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jué (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū (subject + object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (subject + 给gěi + recipient + object)

I want to leave

我wǒ想xiǎng走zǒu (bare verb)

I enjoy swimming

我wǒ喜xǐ欢huān游yóu泳yǒng (bare verb)

I decided to stay

我wǒ决jué定dìng留liú下xià (bare verb)

Simple present

我wǒ说shuō (context)

Simple past

我wǒ说shuō了le (particle)

Simple future

我wǒ要yào说shuō (will)

María, come here!

玛mǎ丽lì，过guò来lái！

Excuse me (getting attention)

麻má烦fán一yī下xià / 喂wèi / 不bù好hǎo意yì思sī

Sir / Madam

先xiān生shēng / 女nǚ士shì / 小xiǎo姐jiě

Pure vowel count

6 main finals (/a, o, e, i, u, ü/)

Diphthongs

Yes (ai, ei, ao, ou, ia, ie, ua, uo, üe)

Vowel length contrast

No

What are you reading?

你nǐ读dú什shí么mó？ (什shí么mó in situ, no movement)

Who came?

谁shuí来lái了le？ (谁shuí in situ)

Where did he go?

他tā去qù哪nǎ儿ér？ (哪nǎ儿ér in situ)

I wish I were rich

我wǒ希xī望wàng我wǒ有yǒu钱qián

I wish he would come

我wǒ希xī望wàng他tā能néng来lái

If only I had studied

要yào是shì我wǒ当dāng时shí学xué习xí了le就jiù好hǎo了le

Unhappy

不bù高gāo兴xīng (不bù + adjective compound)

Happiness

幸xìng福fú感gǎn (compound + suffix-like 感gǎn)

Teacher

老lǎo师shī (honorific + master)

Basic order

SVO (with topic flexibility)

Subject omission

Yes (context reveals it)

Adjective position

Before noun (的de particle)

¿Vienes?

你nǐ来lái吗ma？ (吗ma partícula al final)

¿Es esto un libro?

这zhè是shì书shū吗ma？ (吗ma al final)

¿Te gusta?

你nǐ喜xǐ欢huān吗ma？