GrammarNavigator

Languages

Spanish Grammar

Explore 126 grammar topics for Spanish. Each concept explained with real examples — no comparisons, just the rules that matter.

Topics

Grammar Topics

Each topic shows how Spanish handles the concept, with examples and common pitfalls.

126 topics

Adjective Order

Intermediate

How multiple adjectives are sequenced before nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.

A beautiful old Italian car

un hermoso coche italiano antiguo / un antiguo coche italiano hermoso

A big red wooden box

una caja grande roja de madera

Order flexibility

Moderate (opinion usually first)

Explanation

Adjectives

Beginner

How adjectives modify nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Position

Usually after noun

Agreement

Yes (gender + number)

Multiple adjectives

Limited order, separated by 'y'

Explanation

Adjuncts

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese add optional information about time, place, manner, and reason.

Yesterday he arrived (time)

Ayer llegó / Llegó ayer (flexible position)

He arrived quickly (manner)

Llegó rápidamente (-mente adverb)

He arrived in Madrid (place)

Llegó a Madrid (a + city) / en Madrid (en + country)

Explanation

Adverbs

Beginner

How adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Formation

adjective + -mente (rápidamente)

Position (manner)

Flexible (before/after verb)

Position (frequency)

Before main verb / after 'ser'

Explanation

Anaphora

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese refer back to previously mentioned entities.

John said he would come

Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)

John saw himself

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)

John's book and Mary's book

el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)

Explanation

Apposition

Advanced

How nouns are placed next to each other for identification or clarification in Spanish, English and Chinese.

My friend, the doctor

mi amigo el médico (no commas)

Paris, the capital of France

París, capital de Francia (comma)

President Biden

el presidente Biden (no comma)

Explanation

Articles

Beginner

How definite and indefinite articles work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Definite singular

el libro

Indefinite singular

un libro

Definite plural

los libros

Explanation

Aspect

Intermediate

How grammatical aspect expresses whether an action is completed, ongoing, habitual, or repeated in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Completed action

Preterite: hablé

Ongoing action

Progressive: estoy hablando

Habitual action

Imperfect: hablaba

Explanation

Binding & Reflexivity

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese constrain the relationship between pronouns and their antecedents.

John saw himself (local binding)

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)

Explanation

Causative Constructions

Advanced

How to express 'making someone do something' or 'having something done' in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Make someone do (force)

hacer + infinitive

Let someone do (permit)

dejar + infinitive

Have someone do (arrange)

mandar + infinitive

Explanation

Classifiers

Beginner

How classifiers (measure words) work in Chinese, compared to articles and gender in Spanish and English.

Counted noun (one book)

un libro

Demonstrative + noun

este libro

Gender system

Yes (masculine/feminine)

Explanation

Clitics & Pronoun Placement

Advanced

How unstressed pronouns attach to verbs in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I see him

Lo veo (clitic preverbal)

See him!

¡Velo! (clitic enclitic)

Give it to me

Dámelo (da + me + lo)

Explanation

Code-Switching & Borrowing

Advanced

How speakers alternate between Spanish, English and Chinese in multilingual contexts.

Single-word switch (noun)

Voy al supermarket (supermarket → English in Spanish)

Phrase-level switch

Estoy so tired (English phrase in Spanish)

Switched verb with native morphology

Llamé para confirmar la reservation (reservation with Spanish article)

Explanation

Complement Clauses

Beginner

How clauses function as subjects, objects, and complements in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I know that he came

Sé que vino (indicative)

I want him to come

Quiero que venga (subjunctive)

It's important that he study

Es importante que estudie (subjunctive)

Explanation

Compounding

Advanced

How words are combined to form new lexical items in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Blackboard

pizarra (single lexical item)

Toothbrush

cepillo de dientes (phrase)

Skyscraper

rascacielos (verb-object compound)

Explanation

Concessive Clauses

Advanced

How languages express that something is true despite contrary expectations in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Although it rains, I'll go

Aunque llueva, saldré (subjunctive = concession)

Even if it rains, I'll go

Aunque llueva / Incluso si llueve

Despite the rain

A pesar de la lluvia / Pese a la lluvia

Explanation

Concord & Agreement

Intermediate

How subjects agree with verbs, and modifiers agree with nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I speak / He speaks

Yo hablo / Él habla (person agreement)

The tall boy / The tall girl

El chico alto / La chica alta (gender + number agreement)

The tall boys / The tall girls

Los chicos altos / Las chicas altas

Explanation

Conditional Mood

Intermediate

How languages express hypothetical, counterfactual, and uncertain situations in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I would go

Yo iría (conditional)

If I had time, I would read

Si tuviera tiempo, leería (subjunctive + conditional)

If I had studied, I would have passed

Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado (pluperfect subjunctive + conditional perfect)

Explanation

Conditionals

Intermediate

How if-clauses express hypothetical, probable, and impossible situations in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Zero conditional (fact)

Si + present, present

First conditional (probable)

Si + present, future

Second conditional (hypothetical)

Si + imperfect subjunctive, conditional

Explanation

Conjunctions

Beginner

How conjunctions connect clauses and ideas in Spanish, English and Chinese.

And

y / e (before i-)

But

pero / sino / sino que

Or

o / u (before o-/ho-)

Explanation

Consonants

Beginner

The consonant inventories and phonotactic patterns of Spanish, English and Chinese.

Total consonant phonemes

~19

Aspiration contrast

No (p, t, k are unaspirated)

Voicing contrast

Yes (b/v, d, g; plus fricative allophones)

Explanation

Coordination

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese join words, phrases, and clauses with conjunctions.

John and Mary

Juan y María (y = and)

John or Mary

Juan o María (o = or)

John but not Mary

Juan pero no María (pero = but)

Explanation

Copula & Linking Verbs

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese link subjects to predicates that are not actions.

I am a doctor

Soy médico (ser)

I am tired

Estoy cansado (estar)

I am in Madrid

Estoy en Madrid (estar)

Explanation

Correlative Constructions

Beginner

How paired elements work together in comparative, conditional, and alternative structures across Spanish, English and Chinese.

The more... the more

Cuanto más... (tanto) más

Both... and

tanto... como / y... también

Neither... nor

ni... ni

Explanation

Dative Shift & Indirect Objects

Advanced

How objects are reordered when an indirect object is present in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I gave John a book

Le di un libro a Juan (a required)

I gave a book to John

Le di un libro a Juan

Dative shift (alternation)

Limited (clitic doubling)

Explanation

Deixis

Advanced

How languages point to people, places and times relative to the speaker in Spanish, English and Chinese.

This (near speaker)

este

That (near listener)

ese

That (far from both)

aquel

Explanation

Demonstratives

Beginner

How demonstrative pronouns and adjectives work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

This (near speaker)

este (masc) / esta (fem)

That (near listener)

ese (masc) / esa (fem)

That over there (far from both)

aquel (masc) / aquella (fem)

Explanation

Determiners

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese use words that specify or quantify nouns.

The book (definite)

el libro (masc) / la mesa (fem)

A book (indefinite)

un libro (masc) / una mesa (fem)

Some books

unos libros / algunos libros

Explanation

Dialects & Variation

Advanced

Regional and social dialect variation across Spanish, English and Chinese.

Major varieties

Castilian, Mexican, Caribbean, Andean, Rioplatense, Chilean

Mutual intelligibility

High (all dialects mostly mutually intelligible)

Phonological variation

seseo/ceceo, yeísmo, voseo, aspiration of -s

Explanation

Direct and Indirect Objects

Beginner

The distinction between Spanish direct and indirect objects, their pronouns, and how English and Chinese express equivalent relationships.

Direct object marking

lo/la/los/las (person: a + pronoun)

Indirect object marking

le/les (always with a)

Double pronouns (IO + DO)

se lo / se la / se los / se las

Explanation

Directional Verbs

Advanced

How movement, direction and path are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Come here

Ven aquí

Go there

Ve allí

Come in

Entra / Pasa

Explanation

Discourse Connectors

Advanced

How ideas are linked across sentences and paragraphs in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Furthermore / Moreover

además / es más / por otra parte

However / Nevertheless

sin embargo / no obstante / a pesar de eso

Therefore / Thus

por lo tanto / por consiguiente / en consecuencia

Explanation

Double Negation

Advanced

How multiple negatives interact in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I don't know anything

No sé nada

Nobody never came

Nadie nunca vino (nobody ever came)

I don't need nothing

No necesito nada (standard)

Explanation

Ellipsis & Dropping

Intermediate

How subjects, objects and verbs are omitted in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Subject omission

Very common (pro-drop)

Object omission

Possible with clitics

Verb omission

Very rare

Explanation

Emphasis & Cleft Sentences

Advanced

How to emphasize specific parts of a sentence in Spanish, English and Chinese.

It was John who left

Fue Juan quien se fue

It was yesterday that he left

Fue ayer cuando se fue

What I want is peace

Lo que quiero es paz

Explanation

Equatives

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese express equality or similarity between entities.

John is as tall as Mary

Juan es tan alto como María (tan...como)

John is not as tall as Mary

Juan no es tan alto como María

John runs as fast as Mary

Juan corre tan rápido como María / igual de rápido que María

Explanation

Etymology

Advanced

The origins and historical development of words in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Primary ancestor

Latin (Vulgar Latin)

Written tradition age

~1,000 years (from ~900 CE)

Vocabulary layers

Latin + Arabic + Indigenous American + English loans

Explanation

Evidentiality

Advanced

How speakers mark the source of their information in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I see that he left

Veo que se fue

I heard he left

Oí que se fue / Dicen que se fue

It seems he left

Parece que se fue

Explanation

Exclamations

Beginner

How surprise, admiration, anger and intensity are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

What a beautiful day!

¡Qué día tan hermoso! / ¡Qué día más lindo!

How tall he is!

¡Qué alto es!

How many books!

¡Cuántos libros!

Explanation

Existence & Location

Beginner

How existence, presence and location are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

There is/are (existence)

hay (invariable)

Location (to be at)

estar (temporary) / ser (permanent)

Possession (to have)

tener

Explanation

Existential Constructions

Advanced

How languages express that something exists or is present in Spanish, English and Chinese.

There is a book

Hay un libro

There are many people

Hay mucha gente

There isn't any water

No hay agua

Explanation

False Friends

Advanced

How cognates and similar-looking words can mislead learners across Spanish, English and Chinese.

Actual

actual = current, present-day

Embarrassed / Embarazada

embarazada = pregnant

Library / Librería

librería = bookstore

Explanation

Finite vs Non-Finite Verbs

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish verbs that carry tense from those that do not.

I want to leave (to-infinitive = non-finite)

Quiero ir (ir = infinitive, non-finite)

Leaving early is wise (gerund = non-finite subject)

Ir temprano es sabio (infinitive as subject)

Seen from above (past participle = non-finite)

Visto desde arriba (participio, non-finite)

Explanation

Focus

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese mark the most important information in a sentence.

It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)

Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien)

JOHN broke it (stress)

JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking)

It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)

Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió

Explanation

Formal vs Informal Register

Beginner

How politeness, formality and social distance are encoded in Spanish, English and Chinese.

You (singular informal)

tú (voseo in some regions)

You (singular formal)

usted

You (plural informal)

vosotros (Spain) / ustedes (Latin America)

Explanation

Future Forms

Beginner

Learn how to express the future in English (will, going to, present continuous), Spanish (futuro simple, ir a + infinitivo), and Chinese (huì, yào, jiāng).

Spontaneous decision

¡Se me olvidó! Lo haré ahora.

Prediction based on evidence

Mira esas nubes. Va a llover.

Planned intention

Voy a estudiar medicina el año que viene.

Explanation

Grammatical Case

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese mark the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns through case.

Nominative (subject)

yo, tú, él, ella

Accusative (direct object)

me, te, lo/la, nos, os, los/las

Dative (indirect object)

me, te, le, nos, os, les

Explanation

Grammatical Gender

Beginner

How grammatical gender works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

System type

Grammatical (masc/fem for all nouns)

Articles agree

Yes (el/la/los/las)

Adjectives agree

Yes (gender + number)

Explanation

Grammaticalization

Beginner

How lexical words become grammatical markers in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Future from 'go'

ir a + infinitive (voy a comer = I'm going to eat)

Progressive from locative

estar + -ndo (originally locative 'be at')

Perfect from 'have'

haber + past participle (he comido = I have eaten)

Explanation

Hedges & Mitigation

Advanced

How speakers soften statements, express uncertainty, and avoid commitment in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Maybe / perhaps

quizá(s) / tal vez / a lo mejor

Kind of / sort of

más o menos / un poco / como que

I think / I guess

creo que / supongo que / me parece que

Explanation

Honorifics & Social Register

Advanced

How respect, hierarchy and social distance are encoded in grammar in Spanish, English and Chinese.

You (formal)

usted (3rd person verb)

You (informal)

tú (2nd person verb)

Mr./Ms. + name

Don/Doña + first name (señor/señora + last name)

Explanation

Idiomatic Phrases

Advanced

Common idiomatic expressions that don't translate literally across Spanish, English and Chinese.

It's raining cats and dogs

Llover a cántaros / Llueve a mares

Break a leg (good luck)

Mucha mierda (theatre slang)

Kill two birds with one stone

Matar dos pájaros de un tiro

Explanation

Imperatives

Beginner

How commands, requests and instructions are formed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Positive command (Come!)

¡Ven! (tú) / ¡Venga! (usted)

Negative command (Don't come!)

¡No vengas!

Formal request

Venga usted / Venga, por favor

Explanation

Impersonal Constructions

Advanced

How languages express actions without a specific agent in Spanish, English and Chinese.

It is raining

Llueve / Está lloviendo

One must study

Hay que estudiar / Se debe estudiar

They say / People say

Se dice / Dicen que

Explanation

Indirect Questions

Advanced

How yes/no and wh-questions are embedded as complements in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I don't know if he came

No sé si vino (si + indicative)

I wonder where he went

Me pregunto adónde fue (wh-word + indicative)

Tell me what you want

Dime lo que quieres / Dime qué quieres

Explanation

Infinitives

Intermediate

How infinitive forms work in Spanish, English, and Chinese.

Dictionary form

hablar, comer, vivir

Infinitive as subject

Nadar es saludable.

Infinitive after modal

Puedo nadar.

Explanation

Interjections

Beginner

Learn how Interjecciones works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

¡Ouch! (dolor)

¡Ay!

¡Wow! (sorpresa)

¡Guau! / ¡Vaya!

¡Oh no! (lamentación)

¡Ay, no! / ¡Vaya por Dios!

Explanation

Intonation & Sentence Melody

Advanced

How pitch and tone convey meaning in statements, questions, and emphasis in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Yes/No question intonation

Rising intonation at end

Wh-question intonation

Falling intonation at end

Statement intonation

Falling intonation at end

Explanation

Inversion & Fronting

Intermediate

How word order is reversed or rearranged for emphasis in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Here comes the bus

Ahí viene el autobús (locative inversion)

Never have I seen such beauty

Nunca había visto tanta belleza (nunca + indicative)

Only then did I understand

Solo entonces entendí (fronting, no inversion)

Explanation

Light Verbs

Intermediate

How common verbs combine with nouns to create verbal meaning in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Take a walk

dar un paseo

Take a shower

ducharse

Make a decision

tomar una decisión

Explanation

Loanwords & Borrowing

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese adopt and adapt words from other languages.

Computer

computadora (LatAm) / ordenador (Spain) — from English

Coffee

café — from Arabic qahwa

Typhoon

tifón — from Chinese/Arabic via Greek

Explanation

Making Comparisons

Beginner

How to compare things in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Taller than

más alto que

As tall as

tan alto como

Less tall than

menos alto que

Explanation

Measure Words

Beginner

How units, containers and portions are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

A cup of tea

una taza de té

A bottle of water

una botella de agua

A piece of cake

un trozo de pastel

Explanation

Modals

Beginner

How modal verbs express possibility, obligation, permission and ability in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Ability (can)

puedo / sé

Possibility (may/might)

puede que + subjuntivo

Permission (may)

puedes

Explanation

Mood

Advanced

How grammatical mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative, conditional) works in Spanish, English, and Chinese.

Statement of fact

Ella estudia medicina.

Wish / desire

Quiero que vengas.

Hypothetical

Si tuviera dinero, viajaría.

Explanation

Morphemes

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese build words from the smallest meaningful units.

cats = cat + -s

gatos = gato + -s (plural inflection)

walked = walk + -ed

caminó = caminar + -ó (past inflection)

happiness = happy + -ness

felicidad = feliz + -idad (derivation)

Explanation

Negation

Beginner

How sentences are negated in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Simple negation

no + verb

Negation of 'to be'

no + ser/estar

Negation of 'to have'

no + tener

Explanation

Nominalization

Intermediate

How verbs and adjectives become nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.

The good (people/things)

los buenos

What is important

lo importante

To swim is fun

Nadar es divertido

Explanation

Nouns

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese form and use nouns: countability, gender, proper vs common, and abstract vs concrete.

The table

la mesa (feminine gender)

Two tables

dos mesas (-as plural)

Water (mass noun)

el agua (mass, masculine despite -a)

Explanation

Numbers & Counting

Beginner

How cardinal and ordinal numbers work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

1-10 basic

uno, dos, tres... diez

11-19 (teens)

irregular (once, doce, trece...)

20, 30, 40...

veinte, treinta, cuarenta...

Explanation

Orthography

Beginner

The visual representation of language in writing across Spanish, English and Chinese.

Alphabet size

27 letters (including ñ)

Sound-letter correspondence

Highly regular (phonemic)

Stress marking

Written accents on unpredictable stress: café / cafe / café

Explanation

Participles

Intermediate

How present and past participles work in Spanish, English, and Chinese.

Present participle / gerund

leyendo (estoy leyendo)

Past participle

leído (he leído)

Participle as adjective

La puerta está abierta.

Explanation

Particles

Intermediate

How Chinese particles express aspect, mood and tone, compared to verb conjugation in Spanish and auxiliaries in English.

Completion

Preterite: hablé

Past experience

Perfect: he hablado

Ongoing action

Progressive: estoy hablando

Explanation

Partitive & Quantitative Expressions

Intermediate

How languages express a part of a whole in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Some of the water

algo del agua / un poco de agua

One of my friends

uno de mis amigos

A piece of cake

un pedazo de pastel

Explanation

Passive Voice

Intermediate

How the passive voice is formed and used in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Basic passive

ser + past participle (agrees in gender/number)

Agent mentioned

por + agent

Passive frequency

Rare (prefer active)

Explanation

Phonology

Beginner

The sound systems of Spanish, English and Chinese: consonants, vowels, syllable structure, and phonotactics.

Vowel inventory

5 pure vowels: a, e, i, o, u (simple, consistent)

Consonant inventory

~19 consonants; no /v/ vs /b/ distinction for many speakers

Syllable structure

(C)V(C): simple, open syllables preferred

Explanation

Phrasal Verbs

Intermediate

How English verb-particle combinations contrast with Spanish and Chinese verb constructions.

Give up (surrender)

rendirse (reflexive verb)

Turn on the light

encender la luz

Turn off the light

apagar la luz

Explanation

Plurals

Beginner

How nouns form their plural in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Regular plural

-s / -es (libro → libros)

Irregular plurals

Yes (el padre → los padres; el lápiz → los lápices)

Plural agreement on articles

Yes (el → los; la → las; un → unos; una → unas)

Explanation

Por vs Para

Intermediate

The distinction between Spanish prepositions por and para and how English and Chinese express equivalent semantic relationships.

Cause / reason

por

Recipient / beneficiary

para

Medium / transport

por

Explanation

Possession

Intermediate

How ownership and relationships are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Basic possession (John's book)

el libro de Juan

Possessive adjective (my)

mi / mis (agrees with noun)

Possessive pronoun (mine)

el mío / la mía / los míos / las mías

Explanation

Predication

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese structure predicates around verbs, adjectives, and nouns.

John is tall (adjectival)

Juan es alto (copula required)

John is a teacher (nominal)

Juan es profesor (copula required)

It rains (verbal, no argument)

Llueve (impersonal)

Explanation

Prepositions

Beginner

How prepositions work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Location (in)

en

Destination (to)

a

Origin (from)

de

Explanation

Preterite vs Imperfect

Beginner

The distinction between Spanish past tenses and how English and Chinese express completed versus ongoing past actions.

Completed action

pretérito

Habitual past

imperfecto

Ongoing interrupted action

imperfecto + pretérito

Explanation

Pro-Drop

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese omit subject pronouns in finite clauses.

I speak Spanish

(Yo) hablo español — yo optional

He speaks Spanish

(Él) habla español — él optional

It is raining

Llueve — no subject at all

Explanation

Pro-Verbs & Verb Substitution

Intermediate

How languages substitute for a repeated or understood verb phrase in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I like it and so does he

A mí me gusta y a él también

I went and he did too

Yo fui y él también

Do you like it? Yes, I do.

¿Te gusta? Sí, me gusta.

Explanation

Prohibitives & Negative Commands

Beginner

How languages express commands not to do something in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Don't go!

¡No vayas! (no + subjunctive/imperative)

Don't touch!

¡No toques!

No smoking

Prohibido fumar / No fumar / Se prohíbe fumar

Explanation

Pronouns

Beginner

How personal, possessive, and demonstrative pronouns work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

First person singular

yo

Second person singular (informal)

Second person singular (formal)

usted

Explanation

Punctuation

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese use marks to structure written text.

Sentence end (statement)

. (period)

Sentence end (question)

¿ ... ? (inverted + normal)

Sentence end (exclamation)

¡ ... ! (inverted + normal)

Explanation

Quantifiers

Intermediate

How quantity and scope are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

All

todo(s) / toda(s)

Some

algún / algunos / algo

Any

alguno (affirmative) / ninguno (negative)

Explanation

Question Tags & Echo Responses

Intermediate

How speakers seek confirmation, express doubt, or echo statements in Spanish, English and Chinese.

You're coming, aren't you?

Vienes, ¿verdad? / Vienes, ¿no?

He's not here, is he?

No está aquí, ¿verdad? / No está aquí, ¿o sí?

You understand, right?

Entiendes, ¿verdad?

Explanation

Questions

Beginner

How yes/no and wh-questions are formed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Yes/no question

¿Vienes? / ¿Vienes tú?

Wh-question (what)

¿Qué quieres?

Question word order

Invert or keep SVO + ¿?

Explanation

Reciprocal Constructions

Intermediate

How mutual actions are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

They love each other

Se quieren / Se aman

They hit each other

Se pegan

We help each other

Nos ayudamos

Explanation

Reduplication

Advanced

Learn how Reduplicación works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Verbo: echar un vistazo

echar un vistazo (perifrasis)

Adjetivo: muy rojo

muy rojo / rojísimo

Adjetivo: de todo tipo

todo tipo de / de todo

Explanation

Reflexive Verbs

Intermediate

How reflexive verbs express actions done to oneself in Spanish, English and Chinese.

True reflexive (I wash myself)

me lavo

Reciprocal (They love each other)

se quieren

Inherent reflexive (to fall asleep)

me duermo (required)

Explanation

Register & Formality

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese vary language according to social context.

You (singular informal)

tú (informal) / usted (formal) — distinct verb forms

Hello

hola (neutral) / buenos días (formal)

Goodbye

adiós / hasta luego (neutral); hasta la vista (formal)

Explanation

Relative Clauses

Intermediate

How relative clauses modify nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Subject relative (The man who came)

El hombre que vino

Object relative (The book that I read)

El libro que leí

Relativized subject kept

Yes (El hombre que vino)

Explanation

Relative Time Expressions

Intermediate

Learn how Expresiones de Tiempo Relativo works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Ya comí

Ya comí

Todavía no como / Aún no he comido

Todavía no como / Aún no he comido

Todavía estoy comiendo / Aún como

Todavía estoy comiendo / Aún como

Explanation

Reported Speech

Intermediate

How direct speech is converted to indirect speech in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Direct: 'I am tired'

Direct: 'Estoy cansado'

Reported: He said he was tired

Dijo que estaba cansado (imperfect)

Direct: 'I will go'

Direct: 'Iré'

Explanation

Result Clauses

Intermediate

How to express consequences and degrees in Spanish, English and Chinese.

So tall that...

tan alto que...

So fast that...

tan rápido que...

Such a good book that...

un libro tan bueno que...

Explanation

Semantic Roles

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese encode who does what to whom in a sentence.

John broke the vase (agent + patient)

Juan rompió el jarrón (agent = subject, patient = object)

The vase broke (patient = subject)

El jarrón se rompió (patient = subject + se)

John saw Mary (experiencer + stimulus)

Juan vio a María (experiencer = subject)

Explanation

Sentence Types

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese form declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences.

Declarative (statement)

Juan lee un libro. (SVO, falling intonation)

Yes/No question

¿Juan lee un libro? (inversion, ¿?)

Wh-question

¿Qué lee Juan? (wh-fronting, no do-support)

Explanation

Sentence-Final Particles

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese mark sentence tone, attitude and illocutionary force at the end of utterances.

Yes/no question

¿...? (intonation / ¿verdad?)

Suggestion / soft command

...¿vale? / ¿no? (tag)

Surprise / realization

¡...! (exclamation)

Explanation

Ser vs Estar

Beginner

The fundamental distinction between Spanish copulative verbs and how English and Chinese handle equivalent meanings.

Permanent identity

ser

Physical location

estar

Temporary condition

estar

Explanation

Serial Verb Constructions

Intermediate

How multiple verbs combine in a single clause in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Go buy something

Voy a comprar / Voy y compro

Come take a look

Ven a ver / Ven y mira

Give him a book

Le doy un libro

Explanation

Sounds & Interjections

Advanced

How sounds, interjections and expressive words work in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Dog barking

guau guau

Cat meowing

miau

Rooster crowing

quiquiriquí

Explanation

Speech Acts

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese perform actions through language — promising, requesting, apologizing, and more.

Request (direct)

Dame el libro (Give me the book)

Request (polite)

¿Me das el libro? / ¿Podrías darme el libro?

Apology

Lo siento / Perdón / Disculpe

Explanation

Spelling & Writing Systems

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese represent language in writing.

Alphabet type

Latin alphabet, 27 letters (including ñ)

Phoneme-grapheme correspondence

Highly regular: c, qu = /k/; g, gu = /g/ or /x/

Spelling reform attempts

RAE minor reforms (2010: químic→químic, solo/sólo)

Explanation

Subjunctive Mood

Intermediate

Learn how Modo Subjuntivo works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Duda/incertidumbre

Es posible que llueva (subjuntivo)

Deseo/anhelo

Quiero que vengas (subjuntivo)

Contrario a la realidad (presente)

Si fuera rico, viajaría (imperfecto de subjuntivo)

Explanation

Subordination

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese embed clauses within larger structures.

I think that he came

Creo que vino (que + indicative)

I want him to leave

Quiero que se vaya (que + subjunctive)

Because it rained, I stayed

Como llovió, me quedé / Porque llovió, me quedé

Explanation

Superlatives

Beginner

How Spanish, English and Chinese express the highest degree of comparison.

The tallest

el más alto (definite article + más + adjective)

The most interesting

el más interesante

The least important

el menos importante

Explanation

Syntax & Constituents

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese organize words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

The student reads a book

El estudiante lee un libro (SVO)

A book the student reads (topic fronting)

Un libro lee el estudiante (marked, literary)

The tall student quickly reads the book

El estudiante alto lee rápidamente el libro

Explanation

Temporal Clauses

Intermediate

How time relationships are expressed in subordinate clauses in Spanish, English and Chinese.

When I arrived

Cuando llegué (indicative)

Before I leave

Antes de que me vaya (subjunctive)

After he came

Después de que vino (indicative)

Explanation

Time & Dates

Intermediate

How to express time, days, months, years and duration in Spanish, English and Chinese.

What time is it?

¿Qué hora es?

It is 3:15

Son las tres y cuarto

Today is Monday

Hoy es lunes

Explanation

Topic vs Subject Prominence

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese organize sentences around topics or subjects.

Basic sentence structure

Subject-prominent (SVO)

It's raining

Llueve (no subject)

This book, I've read

Este libro, lo he leído (left-dislocation)

Explanation

Topic-Comment Structure

Intermediate

How information is organized into topic and comment in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Basic word order

SVO (with flexible fronting)

This book, I like

Este libro me gusta / A mí me gusta este libro

Money, I have; time, I don't

Dinero tengo; tiempo no

Explanation

Transitivity & Argument Structure

Intermediate

How verbs take objects, drop them, or shift between transitive and intransitive uses in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I broke the vase / The vase broke

Rompí el jarrón / El jarrón se rompió

I eat rice / I eat

Como arroz / Como

I read books / I read

Leo libros / Leo

Explanation

Valency & Argument Structure

Intermediate

How Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive verbs.

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

Juan duerme (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)

Explanation

Verb Complementation

Intermediate

What verbs require infinitives, gerunds, or clauses as objects in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I want to leave

Quiero irse (infinitive)

I enjoy swimming

Me gusta nadar (infinitive)

I decided to stay

Decidí quedarme (infinitive)

Explanation

Verb Tenses

Beginner

How past, present and future are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Simple present

hablo / hablas / habla

Simple past

hablé / hablaste / habló

Simple future

hablaré / hablarás / hablará

Explanation

Vocative & Direct Address

Beginner

How languages directly address people, get attention, and use names in Spanish, English and Chinese.

María, come here!

¡María, ven aquí!

Excuse me (getting attention)

Disculpe / Perdone / Oiga

Sir / Madam

señor / señora / don / doña

Explanation

Vowels

Beginner

The vowel inventories and phonological patterns of Spanish, English and Chinese.

Pure vowel count

5 (/a, e, i, o, u/)

Diphthongs

Yes (ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, ui, uo)

Vowel length contrast

No (all vowels short)

Explanation

Wh-Movement

Advanced

How Spanish, English and Chinese form questions by moving or placing wh-words.

What are you reading?

¿Qué lees? (qué moved to front)

Who came?

¿Quién vino? (quién moved to front)

Where did he go?

¿Adónde fue? (adónde moved to front)

Explanation

Wishes & Hypotheticals

Intermediate

How unreal, wished-for, and imagined situations are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.

I wish I were rich

Ojalá fuera rico

I wish he would come

Ojalá viniera / viniese

If only I had studied

Si al menos hubiera estudiado / Ojalá hubiera estudiado

Explanation

Word Formation

Intermediate

How new words are created through affixation, compounding, and conversion in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Unhappy

infeliz (prefix in-)

Happiness

felicidad (suffix -idad)

Teacher

maestro/a (suffix zero) / profesor (Latin root)

Explanation

Word Order

Beginner

How sentences are structured in Spanish, English and Chinese.

Basic order

SVO (mostly)

Subject omission

Yes (verb conjugation marks person)

Adjective position

After noun (usually)

Explanation

Yes-No Questions

Beginner

Learn how Preguntas Sí/No works in Spanish, English and Chinese.

¿Vienes?

¿Vienes? (inversión implícita, entonación)

¿Es esto un libro?

¿Es esto un libro?

¿Te gusta?

¿Te gusta?

Explanation