Languages
Spanish Grammar
Explore 126 grammar topics for Spanish. Each concept explained with real examples — no comparisons, just the rules that matter.
Topics
Grammar Topics
Each topic shows how Spanish handles the concept, with examples and common pitfalls.
126 topics
Adjective Order
IntermediateHow multiple adjectives are sequenced before nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
A beautiful old Italian car
un hermoso coche italiano antiguo / un antiguo coche italiano hermoso
A big red wooden box
una caja grande roja de madera
Order flexibility
Moderate (opinion usually first)
Adjectives
BeginnerHow adjectives modify nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Position
Usually after noun
Agreement
Yes (gender + number)
Multiple adjectives
Limited order, separated by 'y'
Adjuncts
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese add optional information about time, place, manner, and reason.
Yesterday he arrived (time)
Ayer llegó / Llegó ayer (flexible position)
He arrived quickly (manner)
Llegó rápidamente (-mente adverb)
He arrived in Madrid (place)
Llegó a Madrid (a + city) / en Madrid (en + country)
Adverbs
BeginnerHow adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Formation
adjective + -mente (rápidamente)
Position (manner)
Flexible (before/after verb)
Position (frequency)
Before main verb / after 'ser'
Anaphora
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese refer back to previously mentioned entities.
John said he would come
Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)
John saw himself
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)
John's book and Mary's book
el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)
Apposition
AdvancedHow nouns are placed next to each other for identification or clarification in Spanish, English and Chinese.
My friend, the doctor
mi amigo el médico (no commas)
Paris, the capital of France
París, capital de Francia (comma)
President Biden
el presidente Biden (no comma)
Articles
BeginnerHow definite and indefinite articles work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Definite singular
el libro
Indefinite singular
un libro
Definite plural
los libros
Aspect
IntermediateHow grammatical aspect expresses whether an action is completed, ongoing, habitual, or repeated in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Completed action
Preterite: hablé
Ongoing action
Progressive: estoy hablando
Habitual action
Imperfect: hablaba
Binding & Reflexivity
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese constrain the relationship between pronouns and their antecedents.
John saw himself (local binding)
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)
Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)
Causative Constructions
AdvancedHow to express 'making someone do something' or 'having something done' in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Make someone do (force)
hacer + infinitive
Let someone do (permit)
dejar + infinitive
Have someone do (arrange)
mandar + infinitive
Classifiers
BeginnerHow classifiers (measure words) work in Chinese, compared to articles and gender in Spanish and English.
Counted noun (one book)
un libro
Demonstrative + noun
este libro
Gender system
Yes (masculine/feminine)
Clitics & Pronoun Placement
AdvancedHow unstressed pronouns attach to verbs in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I see him
Lo veo (clitic preverbal)
See him!
¡Velo! (clitic enclitic)
Give it to me
Dámelo (da + me + lo)
Code-Switching & Borrowing
AdvancedHow speakers alternate between Spanish, English and Chinese in multilingual contexts.
Single-word switch (noun)
Voy al supermarket (supermarket → English in Spanish)
Phrase-level switch
Estoy so tired (English phrase in Spanish)
Switched verb with native morphology
Llamé para confirmar la reservation (reservation with Spanish article)
Complement Clauses
BeginnerHow clauses function as subjects, objects, and complements in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I know that he came
Sé que vino (indicative)
I want him to come
Quiero que venga (subjunctive)
It's important that he study
Es importante que estudie (subjunctive)
Compounding
AdvancedHow words are combined to form new lexical items in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Blackboard
pizarra (single lexical item)
Toothbrush
cepillo de dientes (phrase)
Skyscraper
rascacielos (verb-object compound)
Concessive Clauses
AdvancedHow languages express that something is true despite contrary expectations in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Although it rains, I'll go
Aunque llueva, saldré (subjunctive = concession)
Even if it rains, I'll go
Aunque llueva / Incluso si llueve
Despite the rain
A pesar de la lluvia / Pese a la lluvia
Concord & Agreement
IntermediateHow subjects agree with verbs, and modifiers agree with nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I speak / He speaks
Yo hablo / Él habla (person agreement)
The tall boy / The tall girl
El chico alto / La chica alta (gender + number agreement)
The tall boys / The tall girls
Los chicos altos / Las chicas altas
Conditional Mood
IntermediateHow languages express hypothetical, counterfactual, and uncertain situations in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I would go
Yo iría (conditional)
If I had time, I would read
Si tuviera tiempo, leería (subjunctive + conditional)
If I had studied, I would have passed
Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado (pluperfect subjunctive + conditional perfect)
Conditionals
IntermediateHow if-clauses express hypothetical, probable, and impossible situations in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Zero conditional (fact)
Si + present, present
First conditional (probable)
Si + present, future
Second conditional (hypothetical)
Si + imperfect subjunctive, conditional
Conjunctions
BeginnerHow conjunctions connect clauses and ideas in Spanish, English and Chinese.
And
y / e (before i-)
But
pero / sino / sino que
Or
o / u (before o-/ho-)
Consonants
BeginnerThe consonant inventories and phonotactic patterns of Spanish, English and Chinese.
Total consonant phonemes
~19
Aspiration contrast
No (p, t, k are unaspirated)
Voicing contrast
Yes (b/v, d, g; plus fricative allophones)
Coordination
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese join words, phrases, and clauses with conjunctions.
John and Mary
Juan y María (y = and)
John or Mary
Juan o María (o = or)
John but not Mary
Juan pero no María (pero = but)
Copula & Linking Verbs
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese link subjects to predicates that are not actions.
I am a doctor
Soy médico (ser)
I am tired
Estoy cansado (estar)
I am in Madrid
Estoy en Madrid (estar)
Correlative Constructions
BeginnerHow paired elements work together in comparative, conditional, and alternative structures across Spanish, English and Chinese.
The more... the more
Cuanto más... (tanto) más
Both... and
tanto... como / y... también
Neither... nor
ni... ni
Dative Shift & Indirect Objects
AdvancedHow objects are reordered when an indirect object is present in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I gave John a book
Le di un libro a Juan (a required)
I gave a book to John
Le di un libro a Juan
Dative shift (alternation)
Limited (clitic doubling)
Deixis
AdvancedHow languages point to people, places and times relative to the speaker in Spanish, English and Chinese.
This (near speaker)
este
That (near listener)
ese
That (far from both)
aquel
Demonstratives
BeginnerHow demonstrative pronouns and adjectives work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
This (near speaker)
este (masc) / esta (fem)
That (near listener)
ese (masc) / esa (fem)
That over there (far from both)
aquel (masc) / aquella (fem)
Determiners
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese use words that specify or quantify nouns.
The book (definite)
el libro (masc) / la mesa (fem)
A book (indefinite)
un libro (masc) / una mesa (fem)
Some books
unos libros / algunos libros
Dialects & Variation
AdvancedRegional and social dialect variation across Spanish, English and Chinese.
Major varieties
Castilian, Mexican, Caribbean, Andean, Rioplatense, Chilean
Mutual intelligibility
High (all dialects mostly mutually intelligible)
Phonological variation
seseo/ceceo, yeísmo, voseo, aspiration of -s
Direct and Indirect Objects
BeginnerThe distinction between Spanish direct and indirect objects, their pronouns, and how English and Chinese express equivalent relationships.
Direct object marking
lo/la/los/las (person: a + pronoun)
Indirect object marking
le/les (always with a)
Double pronouns (IO + DO)
se lo / se la / se los / se las
Directional Verbs
AdvancedHow movement, direction and path are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Come here
Ven aquí
Go there
Ve allí
Come in
Entra / Pasa
Discourse Connectors
AdvancedHow ideas are linked across sentences and paragraphs in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Furthermore / Moreover
además / es más / por otra parte
However / Nevertheless
sin embargo / no obstante / a pesar de eso
Therefore / Thus
por lo tanto / por consiguiente / en consecuencia
Double Negation
AdvancedHow multiple negatives interact in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I don't know anything
No sé nada
Nobody never came
Nadie nunca vino (nobody ever came)
I don't need nothing
No necesito nada (standard)
Ellipsis & Dropping
IntermediateHow subjects, objects and verbs are omitted in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Subject omission
Very common (pro-drop)
Object omission
Possible with clitics
Verb omission
Very rare
Emphasis & Cleft Sentences
AdvancedHow to emphasize specific parts of a sentence in Spanish, English and Chinese.
It was John who left
Fue Juan quien se fue
It was yesterday that he left
Fue ayer cuando se fue
What I want is peace
Lo que quiero es paz
Equatives
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese express equality or similarity between entities.
John is as tall as Mary
Juan es tan alto como María (tan...como)
John is not as tall as Mary
Juan no es tan alto como María
John runs as fast as Mary
Juan corre tan rápido como María / igual de rápido que María
Etymology
AdvancedThe origins and historical development of words in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Primary ancestor
Latin (Vulgar Latin)
Written tradition age
~1,000 years (from ~900 CE)
Vocabulary layers
Latin + Arabic + Indigenous American + English loans
Evidentiality
AdvancedHow speakers mark the source of their information in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I see that he left
Veo que se fue
I heard he left
Oí que se fue / Dicen que se fue
It seems he left
Parece que se fue
Exclamations
BeginnerHow surprise, admiration, anger and intensity are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
What a beautiful day!
¡Qué día tan hermoso! / ¡Qué día más lindo!
How tall he is!
¡Qué alto es!
How many books!
¡Cuántos libros!
Existence & Location
BeginnerHow existence, presence and location are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
There is/are (existence)
hay (invariable)
Location (to be at)
estar (temporary) / ser (permanent)
Possession (to have)
tener
Existential Constructions
AdvancedHow languages express that something exists or is present in Spanish, English and Chinese.
There is a book
Hay un libro
There are many people
Hay mucha gente
There isn't any water
No hay agua
False Friends
AdvancedHow cognates and similar-looking words can mislead learners across Spanish, English and Chinese.
Actual
actual = current, present-day
Embarrassed / Embarazada
embarazada = pregnant
Library / Librería
librería = bookstore
Finite vs Non-Finite Verbs
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish verbs that carry tense from those that do not.
I want to leave (to-infinitive = non-finite)
Quiero ir (ir = infinitive, non-finite)
Leaving early is wise (gerund = non-finite subject)
Ir temprano es sabio (infinitive as subject)
Seen from above (past participle = non-finite)
Visto desde arriba (participio, non-finite)
Focus
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese mark the most important information in a sentence.
It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)
Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien)
JOHN broke it (stress)
JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking)
It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)
Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió
Formal vs Informal Register
BeginnerHow politeness, formality and social distance are encoded in Spanish, English and Chinese.
You (singular informal)
tú (voseo in some regions)
You (singular formal)
usted
You (plural informal)
vosotros (Spain) / ustedes (Latin America)
Future Forms
BeginnerLearn how to express the future in English (will, going to, present continuous), Spanish (futuro simple, ir a + infinitivo), and Chinese (会, 要, 将).
Spontaneous decision
¡Se me olvidó! Lo haré ahora.
Prediction based on evidence
Mira esas nubes. Va a llover.
Planned intention
Voy a estudiar medicina el año que viene.
Grammatical Case
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese mark the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns through case.
Nominative (subject)
yo, tú, él, ella
Accusative (direct object)
me, te, lo/la, nos, os, los/las
Dative (indirect object)
me, te, le, nos, os, les
Grammatical Gender
BeginnerHow grammatical gender works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
System type
Grammatical (masc/fem for all nouns)
Articles agree
Yes (el/la/los/las)
Adjectives agree
Yes (gender + number)
Grammaticalization
BeginnerHow lexical words become grammatical markers in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Future from 'go'
ir a + infinitive (voy a comer = I'm going to eat)
Progressive from locative
estar + -ndo (originally locative 'be at')
Perfect from 'have'
haber + past participle (he comido = I have eaten)
Hedges & Mitigation
AdvancedHow speakers soften statements, express uncertainty, and avoid commitment in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Maybe / perhaps
quizá(s) / tal vez / a lo mejor
Kind of / sort of
más o menos / un poco / como que
I think / I guess
creo que / supongo que / me parece que
Honorifics & Social Register
AdvancedHow respect, hierarchy and social distance are encoded in grammar in Spanish, English and Chinese.
You (formal)
usted (3rd person verb)
You (informal)
tú (2nd person verb)
Mr./Ms. + name
Don/Doña + first name (señor/señora + last name)
Idiomatic Phrases
AdvancedCommon idiomatic expressions that don't translate literally across Spanish, English and Chinese.
It's raining cats and dogs
Llover a cántaros / Llueve a mares
Break a leg (good luck)
Mucha mierda (theatre slang)
Kill two birds with one stone
Matar dos pájaros de un tiro
Imperatives
BeginnerHow commands, requests and instructions are formed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Positive command (Come!)
¡Ven! (tú) / ¡Venga! (usted)
Negative command (Don't come!)
¡No vengas!
Formal request
Venga usted / Venga, por favor
Impersonal Constructions
AdvancedHow languages express actions without a specific agent in Spanish, English and Chinese.
It is raining
Llueve / Está lloviendo
One must study
Hay que estudiar / Se debe estudiar
They say / People say
Se dice / Dicen que
Indirect Questions
AdvancedHow yes/no and wh-questions are embedded as complements in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I don't know if he came
No sé si vino (si + indicative)
I wonder where he went
Me pregunto adónde fue (wh-word + indicative)
Tell me what you want
Dime lo que quieres / Dime qué quieres
Infinitives
IntermediateHow infinitive forms work in Spanish, English, and Chinese.
Dictionary form
hablar, comer, vivir
Infinitive as subject
Nadar es saludable.
Infinitive after modal
Puedo nadar.
Interjections
BeginnerLearn how Interjecciones works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
¡Ouch! (dolor)
¡Ay!
¡Wow! (sorpresa)
¡Guau! / ¡Vaya!
¡Oh no! (lamentación)
¡Ay, no! / ¡Vaya por Dios!
Intonation & Sentence Melody
AdvancedHow pitch and tone convey meaning in statements, questions, and emphasis in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Yes/No question intonation
Rising intonation at end
Wh-question intonation
Falling intonation at end
Statement intonation
Falling intonation at end
Inversion & Fronting
IntermediateHow word order is reversed or rearranged for emphasis in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Here comes the bus
Ahí viene el autobús (locative inversion)
Never have I seen such beauty
Nunca había visto tanta belleza (nunca + indicative)
Only then did I understand
Solo entonces entendí (fronting, no inversion)
Light Verbs
IntermediateHow common verbs combine with nouns to create verbal meaning in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Take a walk
dar un paseo
Take a shower
ducharse
Make a decision
tomar una decisión
Loanwords & Borrowing
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese adopt and adapt words from other languages.
Computer
computadora (LatAm) / ordenador (Spain) — from English
Coffee
café — from Arabic qahwa
Typhoon
tifón — from Chinese/Arabic via Greek
Making Comparisons
BeginnerHow to compare things in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Taller than
más alto que
As tall as
tan alto como
Less tall than
menos alto que
Measure Words
BeginnerHow units, containers and portions are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
A cup of tea
una taza de té
A bottle of water
una botella de agua
A piece of cake
un trozo de pastel
Modals
BeginnerHow modal verbs express possibility, obligation, permission and ability in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Ability (can)
puedo / sé
Possibility (may/might)
puede que + subjuntivo
Permission (may)
puedes
Mood
AdvancedHow grammatical mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative, conditional) works in Spanish, English, and Chinese.
Statement of fact
Ella estudia medicina.
Wish / desire
Quiero que vengas.
Hypothetical
Si tuviera dinero, viajaría.
Morphemes
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese build words from the smallest meaningful units.
cats = cat + -s
gatos = gato + -s (plural inflection)
walked = walk + -ed
caminó = caminar + -ó (past inflection)
happiness = happy + -ness
felicidad = feliz + -idad (derivation)
Negation
BeginnerHow sentences are negated in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Simple negation
no + verb
Negation of 'to be'
no + ser/estar
Negation of 'to have'
no + tener
Nominalization
IntermediateHow verbs and adjectives become nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
The good (people/things)
los buenos
What is important
lo importante
To swim is fun
Nadar es divertido
Nouns
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese form and use nouns: countability, gender, proper vs common, and abstract vs concrete.
The table
la mesa (feminine gender)
Two tables
dos mesas (-as plural)
Water (mass noun)
el agua (mass, masculine despite -a)
Numbers & Counting
BeginnerHow cardinal and ordinal numbers work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
1-10 basic
uno, dos, tres... diez
11-19 (teens)
irregular (once, doce, trece...)
20, 30, 40...
veinte, treinta, cuarenta...
Orthography
BeginnerThe visual representation of language in writing across Spanish, English and Chinese.
Alphabet size
27 letters (including ñ)
Sound-letter correspondence
Highly regular (phonemic)
Stress marking
Written accents on unpredictable stress: café / cafe / café
Participles
IntermediateHow present and past participles work in Spanish, English, and Chinese.
Present participle / gerund
leyendo (estoy leyendo)
Past participle
leído (he leído)
Participle as adjective
La puerta está abierta.
Particles
IntermediateHow Chinese particles express aspect, mood and tone, compared to verb conjugation in Spanish and auxiliaries in English.
Completion
Preterite: hablé
Past experience
Perfect: he hablado
Ongoing action
Progressive: estoy hablando
Partitive & Quantitative Expressions
IntermediateHow languages express a part of a whole in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Some of the water
algo del agua / un poco de agua
One of my friends
uno de mis amigos
A piece of cake
un pedazo de pastel
Passive Voice
IntermediateHow the passive voice is formed and used in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Basic passive
ser + past participle (agrees in gender/number)
Agent mentioned
por + agent
Passive frequency
Rare (prefer active)
Phonology
BeginnerThe sound systems of Spanish, English and Chinese: consonants, vowels, syllable structure, and phonotactics.
Vowel inventory
5 pure vowels: a, e, i, o, u (simple, consistent)
Consonant inventory
~19 consonants; no /v/ vs /b/ distinction for many speakers
Syllable structure
(C)V(C): simple, open syllables preferred
Phrasal Verbs
IntermediateHow English verb-particle combinations contrast with Spanish and Chinese verb constructions.
Give up (surrender)
rendirse (reflexive verb)
Turn on the light
encender la luz
Turn off the light
apagar la luz
Plurals
BeginnerHow nouns form their plural in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Regular plural
-s / -es (libro → libros)
Irregular plurals
Yes (el padre → los padres; el lápiz → los lápices)
Plural agreement on articles
Yes (el → los; la → las; un → unos; una → unas)
Por vs Para
IntermediateThe distinction between Spanish prepositions por and para and how English and Chinese express equivalent semantic relationships.
Cause / reason
por
Recipient / beneficiary
para
Medium / transport
por
Possession
IntermediateHow ownership and relationships are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Basic possession (John's book)
el libro de Juan
Possessive adjective (my)
mi / mis (agrees with noun)
Possessive pronoun (mine)
el mío / la mía / los míos / las mías
Predication
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese structure predicates around verbs, adjectives, and nouns.
John is tall (adjectival)
Juan es alto (copula required)
John is a teacher (nominal)
Juan es profesor (copula required)
It rains (verbal, no argument)
Llueve (impersonal)
Prepositions
BeginnerHow prepositions work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Location (in)
en
Destination (to)
a
Origin (from)
de
Preterite vs Imperfect
BeginnerThe distinction between Spanish past tenses and how English and Chinese express completed versus ongoing past actions.
Completed action
pretérito
Habitual past
imperfecto
Ongoing interrupted action
imperfecto + pretérito
Pro-Drop
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese omit subject pronouns in finite clauses.
I speak Spanish
(Yo) hablo español — yo optional
He speaks Spanish
(Él) habla español — él optional
It is raining
Llueve — no subject at all
Pro-Verbs & Verb Substitution
IntermediateHow languages substitute for a repeated or understood verb phrase in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I like it and so does he
A mí me gusta y a él también
I went and he did too
Yo fui y él también
Do you like it? Yes, I do.
¿Te gusta? Sí, me gusta.
Prohibitives & Negative Commands
BeginnerHow languages express commands not to do something in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Don't go!
¡No vayas! (no + subjunctive/imperative)
Don't touch!
¡No toques!
No smoking
Prohibido fumar / No fumar / Se prohíbe fumar
Pronouns
BeginnerHow personal, possessive, and demonstrative pronouns work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
First person singular
yo
Second person singular (informal)
tú
Second person singular (formal)
usted
Punctuation
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese use marks to structure written text.
Sentence end (statement)
. (period)
Sentence end (question)
¿ ... ? (inverted + normal)
Sentence end (exclamation)
¡ ... ! (inverted + normal)
Quantifiers
IntermediateHow quantity and scope are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
All
todo(s) / toda(s)
Some
algún / algunos / algo
Any
alguno (affirmative) / ninguno (negative)
Question Tags & Echo Responses
IntermediateHow speakers seek confirmation, express doubt, or echo statements in Spanish, English and Chinese.
You're coming, aren't you?
Vienes, ¿verdad? / Vienes, ¿no?
He's not here, is he?
No está aquí, ¿verdad? / No está aquí, ¿o sí?
You understand, right?
Entiendes, ¿verdad?
Questions
BeginnerHow yes/no and wh-questions are formed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Yes/no question
¿Vienes? / ¿Vienes tú?
Wh-question (what)
¿Qué quieres?
Question word order
Invert or keep SVO + ¿?
Reciprocal Constructions
IntermediateHow mutual actions are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
They love each other
Se quieren / Se aman
They hit each other
Se pegan
We help each other
Nos ayudamos
Reduplication
AdvancedLearn how Reduplicación works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Verbo: echar un vistazo
echar un vistazo (perifrasis)
Adjetivo: muy rojo
muy rojo / rojísimo
Adjetivo: de todo tipo
todo tipo de / de todo
Reflexive Verbs
IntermediateHow reflexive verbs express actions done to oneself in Spanish, English and Chinese.
True reflexive (I wash myself)
me lavo
Reciprocal (They love each other)
se quieren
Inherent reflexive (to fall asleep)
me duermo (required)
Register & Formality
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese vary language according to social context.
You (singular informal)
tú (informal) / usted (formal) — distinct verb forms
Hello
hola (neutral) / buenos días (formal)
Goodbye
adiós / hasta luego (neutral); hasta la vista (formal)
Relative Clauses
IntermediateHow relative clauses modify nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Subject relative (The man who came)
El hombre que vino
Object relative (The book that I read)
El libro que leí
Relativized subject kept
Yes (El hombre que vino)
Relative Time Expressions
IntermediateLearn how Expresiones de Tiempo Relativo works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Ya comí
Ya comí
Todavía no como / Aún no he comido
Todavía no como / Aún no he comido
Todavía estoy comiendo / Aún como
Todavía estoy comiendo / Aún como
Reported Speech
IntermediateHow direct speech is converted to indirect speech in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Direct: 'I am tired'
Direct: 'Estoy cansado'
Reported: He said he was tired
Dijo que estaba cansado (imperfect)
Direct: 'I will go'
Direct: 'Iré'
Result Clauses
IntermediateHow to express consequences and degrees in Spanish, English and Chinese.
So tall that...
tan alto que...
So fast that...
tan rápido que...
Such a good book that...
un libro tan bueno que...
Semantic Roles
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese encode who does what to whom in a sentence.
John broke the vase (agent + patient)
Juan rompió el jarrón (agent = subject, patient = object)
The vase broke (patient = subject)
El jarrón se rompió (patient = subject + se)
John saw Mary (experiencer + stimulus)
Juan vio a María (experiencer = subject)
Sentence Types
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese form declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences.
Declarative (statement)
Juan lee un libro. (SVO, falling intonation)
Yes/No question
¿Juan lee un libro? (inversion, ¿?)
Wh-question
¿Qué lee Juan? (wh-fronting, no do-support)
Sentence-Final Particles
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese mark sentence tone, attitude and illocutionary force at the end of utterances.
Yes/no question
¿...? (intonation / ¿verdad?)
Suggestion / soft command
...¿vale? / ¿no? (tag)
Surprise / realization
¡...! (exclamation)
Ser vs Estar
BeginnerThe fundamental distinction between Spanish copulative verbs and how English and Chinese handle equivalent meanings.
Permanent identity
ser
Physical location
estar
Temporary condition
estar
Serial Verb Constructions
IntermediateHow multiple verbs combine in a single clause in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Go buy something
Voy a comprar / Voy y compro
Come take a look
Ven a ver / Ven y mira
Give him a book
Le doy un libro
Sounds & Interjections
AdvancedHow sounds, interjections and expressive words work in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Dog barking
guau guau
Cat meowing
miau
Rooster crowing
quiquiriquí
Speech Acts
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese perform actions through language — promising, requesting, apologizing, and more.
Request (direct)
Dame el libro (Give me the book)
Request (polite)
¿Me das el libro? / ¿Podrías darme el libro?
Apology
Lo siento / Perdón / Disculpe
Spelling & Writing Systems
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese represent language in writing.
Alphabet type
Latin alphabet, 27 letters (including ñ)
Phoneme-grapheme correspondence
Highly regular: c, qu = /k/; g, gu = /g/ or /x/
Spelling reform attempts
RAE minor reforms (2010: químic→químic, solo/sólo)
Subjunctive Mood
IntermediateLearn how Modo Subjuntivo works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Duda/incertidumbre
Es posible que llueva (subjuntivo)
Deseo/anhelo
Quiero que vengas (subjuntivo)
Contrario a la realidad (presente)
Si fuera rico, viajaría (imperfecto de subjuntivo)
Subordination
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese embed clauses within larger structures.
I think that he came
Creo que vino (que + indicative)
I want him to leave
Quiero que se vaya (que + subjunctive)
Because it rained, I stayed
Como llovió, me quedé / Porque llovió, me quedé
Superlatives
BeginnerHow Spanish, English and Chinese express the highest degree of comparison.
The tallest
el más alto (definite article + más + adjective)
The most interesting
el más interesante
The least important
el menos importante
Syntax & Constituents
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese organize words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.
The student reads a book
El estudiante lee un libro (SVO)
A book the student reads (topic fronting)
Un libro lee el estudiante (marked, literary)
The tall student quickly reads the book
El estudiante alto lee rápidamente el libro
Temporal Clauses
IntermediateHow time relationships are expressed in subordinate clauses in Spanish, English and Chinese.
When I arrived
Cuando llegué (indicative)
Before I leave
Antes de que me vaya (subjunctive)
After he came
Después de que vino (indicative)
Time & Dates
IntermediateHow to express time, days, months, years and duration in Spanish, English and Chinese.
What time is it?
¿Qué hora es?
It is 3:15
Son las tres y cuarto
Today is Monday
Hoy es lunes
Topic vs Subject Prominence
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese organize sentences around topics or subjects.
Basic sentence structure
Subject-prominent (SVO)
It's raining
Llueve (no subject)
This book, I've read
Este libro, lo he leído (left-dislocation)
Topic-Comment Structure
IntermediateHow information is organized into topic and comment in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Basic word order
SVO (with flexible fronting)
This book, I like
Este libro me gusta / A mí me gusta este libro
Money, I have; time, I don't
Dinero tengo; tiempo no
Transitivity & Argument Structure
IntermediateHow verbs take objects, drop them, or shift between transitive and intransitive uses in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I broke the vase / The vase broke
Rompí el jarrón / El jarrón se rompió
I eat rice / I eat
Como arroz / Como
I read books / I read
Leo libros / Leo
Valency & Argument Structure
IntermediateHow Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive verbs.
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)
Juan duerme (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)
Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)
Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)
Verb Complementation
IntermediateWhat verbs require infinitives, gerunds, or clauses as objects in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I want to leave
Quiero irse (infinitive)
I enjoy swimming
Me gusta nadar (infinitive)
I decided to stay
Decidí quedarme (infinitive)
Verb Tenses
BeginnerHow past, present and future are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Simple present
hablo / hablas / habla
Simple past
hablé / hablaste / habló
Simple future
hablaré / hablarás / hablará
Vocative & Direct Address
BeginnerHow languages directly address people, get attention, and use names in Spanish, English and Chinese.
María, come here!
¡María, ven aquí!
Excuse me (getting attention)
Disculpe / Perdone / Oiga
Sir / Madam
señor / señora / don / doña
Vowels
BeginnerThe vowel inventories and phonological patterns of Spanish, English and Chinese.
Pure vowel count
5 (/a, e, i, o, u/)
Diphthongs
Yes (ai, ei, oi, au, eu, ia, ie, io, iu, ua, ue, ui, uo)
Vowel length contrast
No (all vowels short)
Wh-Movement
AdvancedHow Spanish, English and Chinese form questions by moving or placing wh-words.
What are you reading?
¿Qué lees? (qué moved to front)
Who came?
¿Quién vino? (quién moved to front)
Where did he go?
¿Adónde fue? (adónde moved to front)
Wishes & Hypotheticals
IntermediateHow unreal, wished-for, and imagined situations are expressed in Spanish, English and Chinese.
I wish I were rich
Ojalá fuera rico
I wish he would come
Ojalá viniera / viniese
If only I had studied
Si al menos hubiera estudiado / Ojalá hubiera estudiado
Word Formation
IntermediateHow new words are created through affixation, compounding, and conversion in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Unhappy
infeliz (prefix in-)
Happiness
felicidad (suffix -idad)
Teacher
maestro/a (suffix zero) / profesor (Latin root)
Word Order
BeginnerHow sentences are structured in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Basic order
SVO (mostly)
Subject omission
Yes (verb conjugation marks person)
Adjective position
After noun (usually)
Yes-No Questions
BeginnerLearn how Preguntas Sí/No works in Spanish, English and Chinese.
¿Vienes?
¿Vienes? (inversión implícita, entonación)
¿Es esto un libro?
¿Es esto un libro?
¿Te gusta?
¿Te gusta?