英语 语法

A beautiful old Italian car

a beautiful old Italian car (opinion-age-origin)

A big red wooden box

a big red wooden box (size-color-material)

Order flexibility

Strict (violations sound foreign)

Position

Before noun

Agreement

No

Multiple adjectives

Fixed order (opinion-size-age-shape-color-origin-material-purpose)

Posición

Antes del sustantivo

Concordancia

No

Múltiples adjetivos

Orden fijo (opinión-tamaño-edad-forma-color-origen-material-propósito)

Yesterday he arrived (time)

Yesterday he arrived / He arrived yesterday (flexible)

He arrived quickly (manner)

He arrived quickly (-ly adverb)

He arrived in Madrid (place)

He arrived in Madrid (preposition depends on verb)

Definición

Elemento opcional que modifica el verbo o la cláusula

Posición (manera)

Generalmente después del verbo/objeto

Posición (lugar)

Final de la oración (predeterminado)

Formación

adjetivo + -ly (quickly)

Posición (modo)

Generalmente después del verbo/objeto

Posición (frecuencia)

Antes del verbo principal / después de 'be'

Formation

adjective + -ly (quickly)

Position (manner)

Usually after verb/object

Position (frequency)

Before main verb / after 'be'

Mezclar palabras de otra lengua

Sí (Franglais: 'je ne sais quoi')

Préstamos históricos

Muchos del francés, latín (beef, restaurant)

Cambio inter-oracional

Común (oración completa en español)

Pronombre 3ª persona

he/she/they (género distinguido)

Concordancia

Sí (género y número con el antecedente)

Reflexivo

himself/herself (obligatorio para co-referencia local)

John said he would come

John said that he would come (he = John or other)

John saw himself

John saw himself (himself = reflexive)

John's book and Mary's book

John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)

Marcador de aposición

Comas (no restrictiva); sin comas (restrictiva)

Restringida vs no restringiva

Sí (comas para no restringiva)

Marcador definido

El artículo precede al primer sustantivo

My friend, the doctor

my friend, the doctor (comma)

Paris, the capital of France

Paris, the capital of France (comma)

President Biden

President Biden (no comma)

Definite singular

the book

Indefinite singular

a book

Definite plural

the books

Definido singular

the book

Indefinido singular

a book

Definido plural

the books

Completed action

Past simple: I spoke / I have spoken

Ongoing action

Continuous: I am speaking

Habitual action

Used to / would: I used to speak

Acción completada

Pasado simple: I spoke / I have spoken

Acción en progreso

Continuo: I am speaking

Acción habitual

Used to / would: I used to speak

Quizás / tal vez

maybe / perhaps / possibly

Más o menos

kind of / sort of / somewhat

Creo / supongo

I think / I guess / I suppose

John saw himself (local binding)

John saw himself (himself = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Nominativo (sujeto)

I, you, he, she

Acusativo (objeto directo)

me, you, him, her, us, them

Dativo (objeto indirecto)

me, you, him, her, us, them (igual que acusativo)

Make someone do (force)

make + bare infinitive

Let someone do (permit)

let + bare infinitive

Have someone do (arrange)

have + bare infinitive / get + to

Sustantivo contado (un libro)

a book / one book

Demostrativo + sustantivo

this book

Sistema de género

No

Counted noun (one book)

a book / one book

Demonstrative + noun

this book

Gender system

No

Aunque llueve, salgo

Although it's raining, I'm going out

Aunque llueva, saldré

Even if it rains, I'll go out

Por muy alto que sea

However tall he is

Me lo da

He gives it to me

Lo ve

He sees him

Dámelo

Give it to me

I see him

I see him

See him!

See him!

Give it to me

Give it to me

Single-word switch (noun)

I want some agua (agua → Spanish in English)

Phrase-level switch

Let's go to la casa (Spanish phrase in English)

Switched verb with native morphology

I want to comer (Spanish verb in English frame)

I know that he came

I know that he came

I want him to come

I want him to come

It's important that he study

It's important that he study (subjunctive)

Limpiaparabrisas

windshield wiper (sustantivo + sustantivo)

Paraguas

umbrella (sustantivo simple)

Productividad

Alta (bus stop, toothbrush, football)

Blackboard

black + board (compound)

Toothbrush

tooth + brush (compound)

Skyscraper

sky + scraper (noun-noun compound)

Although it rains, I'll go

Although it is raining, I'll go

Even if it rains, I'll go

Even if it rains, I'll go

Despite the rain

Despite the rain / In spite of the rain

I speak / He speaks

I speak / He speaks (-s for 3rd person singular)

The tall boy / The tall girl

The tall boy / The tall girl (no agreement)

The tall boys / The tall girls

The tall boys / The tall girls

Yo hablo / Él habla

I speak / He speaks (-s para 3ª persona singular)

El chico alto / La chica alta

The tall boy / The tall girl (sin concordancia)

Los chicos altos / Las chicas altas

The tall boys / The tall girls

Condicional cero (hecho)

If + presente, presente

Primer condicional (probable)

If + presente, will + verbo

Segundo condicional (hipotético)

If + pasado simple, would + verbo

I would go

I would go

If I had time, I would read

If I had time, I would read

If I had studied, I would have passed

If I had studied, I would have passed

Zero conditional (fact)

If + present, present

First conditional (probable)

If + present, will + verb

Second conditional (hypothetical)

If + past simple, would + verb

Además / Es más

furthermore / moreover / in addition / besides

Sin embargo / No obstante

however / nevertheless / nonetheless / yet

Por lo tanto / Así que

therefore / thus / hence / consequently / as a result

Y

and

Pero

but / yet

O

or

And

and

But

but / yet

Or

or

Total de fonemas consonánticos

~24

Contraste de aspiración

Sí (pʰ, tʰ, kʰ al inicio; p, t, k después de s)

Contraste de sonoridad

Sí (p/b, t/d, k/g, f/v, s/z, etc.)

Total consonant phonemes

~24

Aspiration contrast

Yes (pʰ, tʰ, kʰ initially; p, t, k after s)

Voicing contrast

Yes (p/b, t/d, k/g, f/v, s/z, etc.)

Hacer que alguien haga (forzar)

make + bare infinitive

Dejar que alguien haga (permitir)

let + bare infinitive

Mandar que alguien haga (organizar)

have + bare infinitive / get + to

Cuanto más... (tanto) más

The more... the more

Tanto... como

both... and

Ni... ni

neither... nor

Hay un problema

There is a problem

No hay solución

There is no solution

Había mucha gente

There were many people

Está lloviendo

It is raining

Hay que estudiar

One must study / You have to study

Dicen / La gente dice

They say / People say / It is said

Juan y María

John and Mary

Juan o María

John or Mary

Juan pero no María

John but not Mary

John and Mary

John and Mary

John or Mary

John or Mary

John but not Mary

John but not Mary

I am a doctor

I am a doctor

I am tired

I am tired

I am in Madrid

I am in Madrid

Soy médico

I am a doctor

Estoy cansado

I am tired

Estoy en Madrid

I am in Madrid

The more... the more

The more... the more

Both... and

both... and

Neither... nor

neither... nor

I gave John a book

I gave John a book (dative shifted)

I gave a book to John

I gave a book to John (prepositional)

Dative shift (alternation)

Very productive (John the book / the book to John)

Este (cerca del hablante)

this

Ese (cerca del oyente)

that

Aquel (lejos de ambos)

that (yon — arcaico)

This (near speaker)

this

That (near listener)

that

That (far from both)

that (yon — archaic)

This (near speaker)

this

That (near listener)

that

That over there (far from both)

that (over there)

Este (cerca del hablante)

this

Ese (cerca del oyente)

that

Aquel (lejos de ambos)

that (over there)

Ojalá fuera rico

I wish I were rich

Ojalá viniera

I wish he would come

Si al menos hubiera estudiado

If only I had studied / I wish I had studied

Le di un libro a Juan

I gave John a book (dativo desplazado)

Le di un libro a Juan

I gave a book to John (preposicional)

Desplazamiento dativo (alternancia)

Muy productivo (John the book / the book to John)

El libro (definido)

the book

Un libro (indefinido)

a book / an apple

Algunos libros

some books

The book (definite)

the book

A book (indefinite)

a book / an apple

Some books

some books

Variedades principales

Británico (RP, Escocés, Irlandés, Geordie), Americano (General, Sureño, AAVE), Australiano, Indio, Singapur

Inteligibilidad mutua

Alta (escrita); variable oral (escocés, acentos regionales fuertes)

Variación fonológica

roticidad, división trap-bath, fusión cot-caught, cambios vocálicos

Major varieties

British (RP, Scots, Irish, Geordie), American (General, Southern, AAVE), Australian, Indian, Singapore

Mutual intelligibility

High (written); variable spoken (Scots, strong regional accents)

Phonological variation

rhoticity, trap-bath split, cot-caught merger, vowel shifts

I see him (direct)

I see him

I give him a book (indirect)

I give him a book

Direct object pronoun (it)

it / them

Come here

Come here

Go there

Go there

Come in

Come in

Furthermore / Moreover

furthermore / moreover / in addition / besides

However / Nevertheless

however / nevertheless / nonetheless / yet

Therefore / Thus

therefore / thus / hence / consequently / as a result

No sé nada

I don't know anything

Nadie nunca vino

Nobody ever came (nobody never = somebody)

No necesito nada

I don't need anything (I don't need nothing = no estándar)

I don't know anything

I don't know anything

Nobody never came

Nobody ever came (nobody never = somebody)

I don't need nothing

I don't need anything (I don't need nothing = non-standard)

Omisión del sujeto

Muy rara (solo imperativos)

Omisión del objeto

Rara (solo anáfora)

Omisión del verbo

Muy rara (respuestas elípticas)

Subject omission

Very rare (imperatives only)

Object omission

Rare (anaphora only)

Verb omission

Very rare (elliptical answers)

It was John who left

It was John who left

It was yesterday that he left

It was yesterday that he left

What I want is peace

What I want is peace

Fue Juan quien se fue

It was John who left

Fue ayer cuando se fue

It was yesterday that he left

Lo que quiero es paz

What I want is peace

Entonación de pregunta de sí/no

Tono ascendente al final

Entonación de pregunta wh

Tono descendente al final

Entonación de declaración

Tono descendente al final

John is as tall as Mary

John is as tall as Mary (as...as)

John is not as tall as Mary

John is not as tall as Mary

John runs as fast as Mary

John runs as fast as Mary

Antepasado principal

Proto-germánico + fuerte influencia latina/francesa

Edad de la tradición escrita

~1,300 años (desde ~700 d.C.)

Capas de vocabulario

Anglosajón + Francés normando + Latín + Griego + préstamos globales

Primary ancestor

Proto-Germanic + heavy Latin/French influence

Written tradition age

~1,300 years (from ~700 CE)

Vocabulary layers

Anglo-Saxon + Norman French + Latin + Greek + global loans

Veo que se fue

I see that he left

Oí que se fue

I heard he left

Parece que se fue

It seems he left

I see that he left

I see that he left

I heard he left

I heard he left

It seems he left

It seems he left

¡Qué hermoso!

How beautiful!

¡Qué sorpresa!

What a surprise!

¡Ay!

Ouch! / Ow!

What a beautiful day!

What a beautiful day!

How tall he is!

How tall he is!

How many books!

What a lot of books! / So many books!

There is/are (existence)

there is / there are

Location (to be at)

be / is at

Possession (to have)

have / has

Hay un libro

There is a book

No hay agua

There is no water

El gato está en la mesa

The cat is on the table

There is a book

There is a book

There are many people

There are many people

There isn't any water

There isn't any water / There's no water

Llover a cántaros

It's raining cats and dogs

¡Mucha mierda! (buena suerte)

Break a leg

Matar dos pájaros de un tiro

Kill two birds with one stone

Actual

actual = real, existing in fact

Embarrassed / Embarazada

embarrassed = avergonzado

Library / Librería

library = biblioteca

Actually / Actualmente

Actually = in fact, de hecho

Embarrassed / Embarazada

Embarrassed = avergonzada

Eventual / Eventually

Eventually = finalmente, con el tiempo

I want to leave (to-infinitive = non-finite)

I want to leave (to leave = infinitive, non-finite)

Leaving early is wise (gerund = non-finite subject)

Leaving early is wise (-ing form as subject)

Seen from above (past participle = non-finite)

Seen from above (past participle, non-finite)

JUAN compró el libro

It was Juan who bought the book (it-cleft)

Juan compró EL LIBRO

It was the book that Juan bought (it-cleft)

¿DÓNDE compró el libro?

Where did he buy the book? (wh-cleft/focus)

It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)

It was JOHN who broke it (it-cleft)

JOHN broke it (stress)

JOHN broke it (stress on subject)

It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)

It was THE VASE that John broke

You (singular informal)

you

You (singular formal)

you (no distinction)

You (plural informal)

you / you guys / y'all

El niño / La niña

The boy / The girl (género léxico, no gramatical)

El sol / La luna

The sun / The moon — no género

Un médico / Una médica

A doctor (neutro; gender-neutral)

Nadar es saludable

Swimming is healthy (gerundio como sujeto)

Me gusta nadar

I like swimming (gerundio como objeto)

Lo vi nadando

I saw him swimming (-ing como participio)

Swimming is healthy

Swimming is healthy (gerund as subject)

I like swimming

I like swimming (gerund as object)

I saw him swimming

I saw him swimming (-ing as participle)

Futuro desde 'ir'

be going to + verbo (I'm going to eat)

Progresivo desde locativo

be + -ing (originalmente locativo 'estar en/sobre haciendo')

Perfecto desde 'tener'

have + participio (I have eaten)

Nominative (subject)

I, you, he, she

Accusative (direct object)

me, you, him, her, us, them

Dative (indirect object)

me, you, him, her, us, them (same as accusative)

System type

Natural (he/she/it for animates)

Articles agree

No (the)

Adjectives agree

No

Future from 'go'

be going to + verb (I'm going to eat)

Progressive from locative

be + -ing (originally locative 'be on/at doing')

Perfect from 'have'

have + past participle (I have eaten)

Más alto que

taller than

El más alto

the tallest

Tan alto como

as tall as

Maybe / perhaps

maybe / perhaps / possibly

Kind of / sort of

kind of / sort of / somewhat

I think / I guess

I think / I guess / I suppose

Usted (formal)

you (sin distinción gramatical)

Tú (informal)

you

Sr./Sra. + nombre

Mr./Ms./Mrs. + apellido

You (formal)

you (no grammatical distinction)

You (informal)

you

Mr./Ms. + name

Mr./Ms./Mrs. + last name

It's raining cats and dogs

It's raining cats and dogs

Break a leg (good luck)

Break a leg

Kill two birds with one stone

Kill two birds with one stone

Juan es tan alto como María

John is as tall as Mary (as...as)

Juan no es tan alto como María

John is not as tall as Mary

Juan corre tan rápido como María

John runs as fast as Mary

Positive command (Come!)

Come!

Negative command (Don't come!)

Don't come!

Formal request

Please come / Would you come?

Mandato positivo (¡Ven!)

Come!

Mandato negativo (¡No vengas!)

Don't come!

Petición formal

Please come / Would you come?

It is raining

It is raining

One must study

One must study / You have to study

They say / People say

They say / People say / It is said

I don't know if he came

I don't know if he came

I wonder where he went

I wonder where he went

Tell me what you want

Tell me what you want

¡Ouch! (dolor)

Ouch! / Ow!

¡Wow! (sorpresa)

Wow!

¡Oh no! (lamentación)

Oh no!

Oh! (surprise)

Oh! / Wow!

Ouch! (pain)

Ouch! / Ow!

Shh! (silence)

Shh! / Hush!

Yes/No question intonation

Rising intonation at end

Wh-question intonation

Falling intonation at end

Statement intonation

Falling intonation at end

Here comes the bus

Here comes the bus (locative inversion)

Never have I seen such beauty

Never have I seen such beauty (auxiliary inversion)

Only then did I understand

Only then did I understand (auxiliary inversion)

Ahí viene el autobús

Here comes the bus (inversión locativa)

Nunca había visto tanta belleza

Never have I seen such beauty (inversión de auxiliar)

Solo entonces entendí

Only then did I understand (inversión de auxiliar)

Juan se vio (ligadura local)

John saw himself (himself = John, local)

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio (debe ser Pedro)

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

Juan lo vio (lo ≠ Juan)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Take a walk

take a walk

Take a shower

take a shower

Make a decision

make a decision

Computer

computer — from Latin computare

Coffee

coffee — from Arabic via Turkish/Dutch

Typhoon

typhoon — from Chinese taifeng via Arabic/Greek

Taller than

taller than / more expensive than

As tall as

as tall as

Less tall than

less tall than / not as tall as

A cup of tea

a cup of tea

A bottle of water

a bottle of water

A piece of cake

a piece of cake

Ability (can)

can / could

Possibility (may/might)

may / might

Permission (may)

may / can

Yo iría

I would go

Si tuviera tiempo, leería

If I had time, I would read

Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado

If I had studied, I would have passed

Plural de sustantivo

cat → cat**s** (sufijo)

Conjugación verbal (tiempo)

walk**s**, walk**ed**, walk**ing** (sufijos)

Composición

raincoat (rain + coat)

cats = cat + -s

cats = cat + -s (plural inflection)

walked = walk + -ed

walked = walk + -ed (past inflection)

happiness = happy + -ness

happiness = happy + -ness (derivation)

Negación verbal general

do/does/did + not + verbo: I do not eat.

Negación de hecho completado

did + not + infinitivo: I did not eat.

Negación del sustantivo (no es)

is not + sustantivo: It is not a dog.

Simple negation

do/does/did + not + verb

Negation of 'to be'

am/is/are + not

Negation of 'to have'

do/does + not + have

El infinitivo como sustantivo

Running is good. (gerundio)

Verbo → Sustantivo de acción

the decision

Adjetivo → Sustantivo abstracto

the good / beauty

The good (people/things)

the good

What is important

the important thing / what is important

To swim is fun

Swimming is fun / To swim is fun

The table

the table (no gender)

Two tables

two tables (-s plural)

Water (mass noun)

water (mass, no article)

1-10 basic

one, two, three... ten

11-19 (teens)

ten + number (eleven, twelve, thirteen...)

20, 30, 40...

twenty, thirty, forty...

1-10 básico

one, two, three... ten

11-19 (adolescentes)

diez + número (eleven, twelve, thirteen...)

20, 30, 40...

twenty, thirty, forty...

Lo veo (directo)

I see him

Le doy un libro (indirecto)

I give him a book

Pronombre de objeto directo (lo)

it / them

Ladrido de perro

woof woof / bow wow

Maullido de gato

meow

Cantar del gallo

cock-a-doodle-doo

Creo que viene

I think **(that)** he's coming

Dijo que vendría

He said **(that)** he would come

Es obvio que es cierto

It's obvious **(that)** it's true

Un hermoso coche italiano antiguo

a beautiful old Italian car (opinión-edad-origen)

Una caja roja grande de madera

a big red wooden box (tamaño-color-material)

Flexibilidad del orden

Estricta (las violaciones suenan extranjeras)

Alphabet size

26 letters

Sound-letter correspondence

Irregular (deep orthography)

Stress marking

No stress marking in writing

Tamaño del alfabeto

26 letras

Correspondencia sonido-letra

Irregular (ortografía profunda)

Marcación del acento

Sin marcación de acento en la escritura

Una taza de té

a cup of tea

Una botella de agua

a bottle of water

Un trozo de pastel

a piece of cake

Completion

Past simple: I spoke

Past experience

Present perfect: I have spoken

Ongoing action

Continuous: I am speaking

Completitud

Past simple: I spoke

Experiencia pasada

Present perfect: I have spoken

Acción en progreso

Continuo: I am speaking

Some of the water

some of the water / a little water

One of my friends

one of my friends

A piece of cake

a piece of cake

Algo de agua

some of the water / a little water

Uno de mis amigos

one of my friends

Un pedazo de pastel

a piece of cake

Basic passive

be + past participle

Agent mentioned

by + agent

Passive frequency

Very common

Vowel inventory

~12 pure + 8 diphthongs (complex, spelling-irregular)

Consonant inventory

~24 consonants; complex clusters: strengths /strɛŋkθs/

Syllable structure

CCCVCCCC: complex clusters (strengths, texts)

Give up (surrender)

give up (separable phrasal verb)

Turn on the light

turn on the light (separable)

Turn off the light

turn off the light (separable)

Regular plural

-s / -es (book → books)

Irregular plurals

Yes (man → men; child → children; tooth → teeth)

Plural agreement on articles

No (the / a)

Basic possession (John's book)

John's book

Possessive adjective (my)

my (invariable)

Possessive pronoun (mine)

mine (invariable)

John is tall (adjectival)

John is tall (copula required)

John is a teacher (nominal)

John is a teacher (copula required)

It rains (verbal, no argument)

It rains (expletive subject)

No sé si vino

I don't know if he came

Me pregunto adónde fue

I wonder where he went

Dime lo que quieres

Tell me what you want

Location (in)

in / at

Destination (to)

to

Origin (from)

from

Computadora

computer — del latín computare

Café

coffee — del árabe via turco/holandés

Tifón

typhoon — del chino taifeng via árabe/griego

I speak Spanish

I speak Spanish — I required

He speaks Spanish

He speaks Spanish — he required

It is raining

It is raining — expletive it required

I like it and so does he

I like it and so does he

I went and he did too

I went and he did too

Do you like it? Yes, I do.

Do you like it? Yes, I do.

Don't go!

Don't go!

Don't touch!

Don't touch!

No smoking

No smoking / Smoking prohibited

First person singular

I

Second person singular (informal)

you

Second person singular (formal)

you

Sentence end (statement)

. (period)

Sentence end (question)

? (question mark)

Sentence end (exclamation)

! (exclamation mark)

All

all / every / each

Some

some / a few / several

Any

any (free-choice & NPI)

You're coming, aren't you?

You're coming, aren't you?

He's not here, is he?

He's not here, is he?

You understand, right?

You understand, right? / You understand, don't you?

Yes/no question

Are you coming? / Do you come?

Wh-question (what)

What do you want?

Question word order

Auxiliary + subject + verb

They love each other

They love each other / one another

They hit each other

They hit each other

We help each other

We help each other

Verb: take a look

take a look / have a look

Adjective: very red

very red / bright red

Adjective: every kind of

all kinds of / all sorts of

True reflexive (I wash myself)

I wash myself

Reciprocal (They love each other)

they love each other

Inherent reflexive (to fall asleep)

I fall asleep (no reflexive)

You (singular informal)

you (universal) — no distinction

Hello

hello / hi / hey (informal)

Goodbye

goodbye / bye / see ya (informal)

Tú vs Usted

You (universal)

¿Cómo estás?

How are you? (universal)

Gracias (formal)

Thank you very much / I appreciate it

Subject relative (The man who came)

The man who/that came

Object relative (The book that I read)

The book that/which I read

Relativized subject kept

Yes (The man who came)

I already ate

I already ate / I have already eaten

I haven't eaten yet

I haven't eaten yet

I'm still eating

I'm still eating

Direct: 'I am tired'

Direct: 'I am tired'

Reported: He said he was tired

He said he was tired (past simple)

Direct: 'I will go'

Direct: 'I will go'

So tall that...

so tall that...

So fast that...

so fast that...

Such a good book that...

such a good book that...

John broke the vase (agent + patient)

John broke the vase (agent = subject, patient = object)

The vase broke (patient = subject)

The vase broke (patient = subject)

John saw Mary (experiencer + stimulus)

John saw Mary (experiencer = subject)

Declarative (statement)

John reads a book. (SVO, falling intonation)

Yes/No question

Does John read a book? (auxiliary do, ?)

Wh-question

What is John reading? (wh-movement, auxiliary inversion)

Yes/no question

Rising intonation / ...right?

Suggestion / soft command

...okay? / Let's..., shall we?

Surprise / realization

...really?! / Oh!

Go buy something

Go and buy / Go buy

Come take a look

Come and see / Come see

Give him a book

I give him a book

Dog barking

woof woof / bow wow

Cat meowing

meow

Rooster crowing

cock-a-doodle-doo

Request (direct)

Give me the book

Request (polite)

Could you give me the book? / Would you mind giving me the book?

Apology

I'm sorry / I apologize / Excuse me

Alphabet type

Latin alphabet, 26 letters

Phoneme-grapheme correspondence

Deep orthography: rough, through, bough, cough, dough (5 pronunciations of -ough)

Spelling reform attempts

None official; Webster simplified some spellings (color/colour)

Doubt/uncertainty

It may rain (modal + base verb)

Desire/wish

I want you to come (infinitive)

Contrary to fact (present)

If I were rich, I would travel (were)

I think that he came

I think that he came (that + finite clause)

I want him to leave

I want him to leave (for-to / ECM)

Because it rained, I stayed

Because it rained, I stayed

The tallest

the tallest (-est suffix)

The most interesting

the most interesting (most + adjective)

The least important

the least important

Género gramatical

Ninguno (solo natural: he/she)

Plural

-s / -es / -ies: dog**s**, box**es**, cit**ies**

Artículo definido

the

The student reads a book

The student reads a book (SVO)

A book the student reads (topic fronting)

A book the student reads (marked, cleft-like)

The tall student quickly reads the book

The tall student quickly reads the book

When I arrived

When I arrived

Before I leave

Before I leave

After he came

After he came

What time is it?

What time is it?

It is 3:15

It's three fifteen / quarter past three

Today is Monday

Today is Monday

Basic sentence structure

Subject-prominent (SVO)

It's raining

It is raining (dummy subject)

This book, I've read

This book, I've read it (left-dislocation)

Basic word order

Strict SVO

This book, I like

This book I like / I like this book

Money, I have; time, I don't

Money I have; time I don't

I broke the vase / The vase broke

I broke the vase / The vase broke

I eat rice / I eat

I eat rice / I eat

I read books / I read

I read books / I read

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

John sleeps (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

John reads a book (subject + direct object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary

I want to leave

I want to leave (to-infinitive)

I enjoy swimming

I enjoy swimming (gerund)

I decided to stay

I decided to stay (to-infinitive)

Simple present

I speak / he speaks

Simple past

I spoke / he spoke

Simple future

I will speak

Dar un paseo

take a walk

Ducharse

take a shower

Tomar una decisión

make a decision

Ven aquí

Come here

Ve allí

Go there

Entra

Come in

Quiero comer

I want to eat (to eat = infinitivo no finito)

Comiendo, escuché música

While eating, I listened to music (eating = gerundio no finito)

He comido

I have eaten (have = finito; eaten = participio no finito)

Habilidad (poder)

can / could

Posibilidad (puede/ podría)

may / might

Permiso (poder)

may / can

María, come here!

María, come here!

Excuse me (getting attention)

Excuse me / Hey / Pardon

Sir / Madam

sir / ma'am / miss

Pure vowel count

12+ (plus schwa and r-colored vowels)

Diphthongs

Many (ai, ei, au, ou, iə, eə, uə, etc.)

Vowel length contrast

Yes (beet vs bit, boot vs put)

Pasiva básica

be + participio pasado

Agente mencionado

by + agente

Frecuencia de pasiva

Muy común

What are you reading?

What are you reading? (what moved to front + auxiliary inversion)

Who came?

Who came? (who = subject, no inversion)

Where did he go?

Where did he go? (where moved + did-insertion)

I wish I were rich

I wish I were rich

I wish he would come

I wish he would come

If only I had studied

If only I had studied / I wish I had studied

Unhappy

unhappy (prefix un-)

Happiness

happiness (suffix -ness)

Teacher

teach + er (agentive suffix)

Basic order

Strict SVO

Subject omission

No (subject always required)

Adjective position

Before noun

Rising intonation only

You're coming? (informal)

Inversion / auxiliary change

Are you coming? (auxiliary before subject)

Question particle

No dedicated particle

我说 / 他说

I speak / He speaks（第dì三sān人rén称chēng单dān数shù -s）

高个男孩 / 高个女孩

The tall boy / The tall girl（无wú一yī致zhì）

高个男孩们 / 高个女孩们

The tall boys / The tall girls

我给了约翰一本书

I gave John a book (与yǔ格gé位wèi移yí)

我把书给了约翰

I gave a book to John (介jiè词cí形xíng式shì)

与格交替

非fēi常cháng高gāo效xiào（John the book / the book to John）

倾盆大雨

It's raining cats and dogs

加油（祝好运）

Break a leg

一箭双雕

Kill two birds with one stone

完成的动作

一yī般bān过guò去qù时shí: I spoke / I have spoken

进行的动作

进jìn行háng时shí: I am speaking

习惯的动作

Used to / would: I used to speak

让某人做（强迫）

make + bare infinitive

让某人做（允许）

let + bare infinitive

安排某人做

have + bare infinitive / get + to

车来了（倒装）

Here comes the bus（地dì点diǎn倒dǎo装zhuāng）

我从未见过如此美景

Never have I seen such beauty（助zhù动dòng词cí倒dǎo装zhuāng）

直到那时我才明白

Only then did I understand（助zhù动dòng词cí倒dǎo装zhuāng）

Actually / Actualmente

Actually = in fact, 事shì实shí上shàng

Embarrassed / Embarazada

Embarrassed = 尴gān尬gà

Eventual / Eventually

Eventually = 最zuì终zhōng

越...越

The more... the more

既...又

both... and

既不...也不

neither... nor

定冠词单数

the book

不定冠词单数

a book

定冠词复数

the books

构成

形xíng容róng词cí + -ly (quickly)

位置（方式）

通tōng常cháng在zài动dòng词cí/宾bīn语yǔ后hòu

位置（频率）

主zhǔ要yào动dòng词cí前qián / 'be'后hòu

游泳有益健康

Swimming is healthy (动dòng名míng词cí作zuò主zhǔ语yǔ)

我喜欢游泳

I like swimming (动dòng名míng词cí作zuò宾bīn语yǔ)

我看见他在游泳

I saw him swimming (-ing 作zuò分fēn词cí)

完成

一yī般bān过guò去qù时shí：I spoke

过去经历

现xiàn在zài完wán成chéng时shí：I have spoken

进行动作

进jìn行háng时shí：I am speaking

我什么都不知道

I don't know anything

谁都没来过

Nobody ever came (nobody never = somebody)

我什么都不需要

I don't need anything (I don't need nothing = no estándar)

同位语标记

逗dòu号hào（非fēi限xiàn制zhì性xìng）；无wú逗dòu号hào（限xiàn制zhì性xìng）

限制性与非限制性

是shì（非fēi限xiàn制zhì性xìng用yòng逗dòu号hào）

限定标记

冠guān词cí在zài第dì一yī个gè名míng词cí前qián

语法性

无wú（仅jǐn自zì然rán性xìng：he/she）

复数

-s / -es / -ies：dogs, boxes, cities

定冠词

the

不定式作名词

Running is good.（动dòng名míng词cí）

动词→动作名词

the decision

形容词→抽象名词

the good / beauty

一般动词否定

do/does/did + not + verbo：I do not eat.

已完成事实的否定

did + not + infinitivo：I did not eat.

名词否定（不是）

is not + sustantivo：It is not a dog.

第三人称代词

he/she/they（区qū分fēn性xìng别bié）

一致

是shì（与yǔ先xiān行háng语yǔ的de性xìng和hé数shù一yī致zhì）

反身代词

himself/herself（本běn地dì共gòng指zhǐ强qiáng制zhì）

雨刷

windshield wiper（名míng词cí + 名míng词cí）

雨伞

umbrella（简jiǎn单dān名míng词cí）

能产性

高gāo（bus stop, toothbrush, football）

电脑

computer — 来lái自zì拉lā丁dīng语yǔ computare

咖啡

coffee — 来lái自zì阿ā拉lā伯bó语yǔ，经jīng土tǔ耳ěr其qí语yǔ/荷hé兰lán语yǔ

台风

typhoon — 来lái自zì汉hàn语yǔ taifeng，经jīng阿ā拉lā伯bó语yǔ/希xī腊là语yǔ

有一本书

There is a book

没有水

There is no water

猫在桌子上

The cat is on the table

有一个问题

There is a problem

没有解决方案

There is no solution

有很多人

There were many people

约翰和玛丽

John and Mary

约翰或者玛丽

John or Mary

约翰但不是玛丽

John but not Mary

是约翰走的

It was John who left

他是昨天走的

It was yesterday that he left

我要的是和平

What I want is peace

位置

位wèi于yú名míng词cí前qián

一致性

否fǒu

多个形容词

固gù定dìng顺shùn序xù（观guān点diǎn-大dà小xiǎo-年nián龄líng-形xíng状zhuàng-颜yán色sè-来lái源yuán-材cái料liào-用yòng途tú）

一辆漂亮的古老意大利车

a beautiful old Italian car (opinion-age-origin)

一个大的红色木头箱子

a big red wooden box (size-color-material)

顺序灵活性

严yán格gé（违wéi反fǎn顺shùn序xù听tīng起qǐ来lái像xiàng外wài语yǔ）

能力（能够）

can / could

可能性（也许/可能）

may / might

许可（可以）

may / can

真漂亮！

How beautiful!

真意外！

What a surprise!

哎哟！

Ouch! / Ow!

哎哟！（疼痛）

Ouch! / Ow!

哇！（惊讶）

Wow!

哦不！（惋惜）

Oh no!

但愿我有钱

I wish I were rich

但愿他能来

I wish he would come

如果我当时学了

If only I had studied / I wish I had studied

狗叫

woof woof / bow wow

猫叫

meow

公鸡打鸣

cock-a-doodle-doo

这个（近说话者）

this

那个（近听话者）

that

那个（远离双方）

that (yon — 古gǔ体tǐ)

这个（近说话者）

this

那个（近听话者）

that

那个（远离双方）

that (over there)

您（敬称）

you（无wú语yǔ法fǎ区qū别bié）

你（通称）

you

先生/女士 + 姓名

Mr./Ms./Mrs. + 姓xìng

主要变体

英yīng式shì（RP、苏sū格gé兰lán语yǔ、爱ài尔ěr兰lán语yǔ、纽niǔ卡kǎ斯sī尔ěr语yǔ）、美měi式shì（通tōng用yòng、南nán方fāng、AAVE）、澳ào式shì、印yìn式shì、新xīn加jiā坡pō式shì

相互理解度

高gāo（书shū面miàn）；变biàn化huà（苏sū格gé兰lán语yǔ、强qiáng地dì方fāng口kǒu音yīn）

语音变异

r音yīn性xìng、trap-bath 分fēn裂liè、cot-caught 合hé并bìng、元yuán音yīn转zhuǎn移yí

零条件（事实）

If + presente, presente

第一条件（可能）

If + presente, will + verbo

第二条件（假设）

If + pasado simple, would + verbo

我会去

I would go

如果我有时间，我会读

If I had time, I would read

如果我当时学了，就会过了

If I had studied, I would have passed

也许 / 可能

maybe / perhaps / possibly

有点儿 / 稍微

kind of / sort of / somewhat

我想 / 我觉得

I think / I guess / I suppose

字母表大小

26个gè字zì母mǔ

音形对应

不bù规guī则zé（深shēn层céng正zhèng字zì法fǎ）

重音标记

书shū写xiě中zhōng无wú重zhòng音yīn标biāo记jì

你 vs 您

You (universal)

你好吗？

How are you? (universal)

谢谢（正式）

Thank you very much / I appreciate it

胡安买了书

It was Juan who bought the book (it-cleft)

胡安买的是书

It was the book that Juan bought (it-cleft)

他在哪儿买的书？

Where did he buy the book? (wh-cleft/focus)

定义

修xiū饰shì动dòng词cí或huò句jù子zǐ的de可kě选xuǎn成chéng分fēn

位置（方式）

通tōng常cháng在zài动dòng词cí/宾bīn语yǔ后hòu

位置（地点）

句jù末mò（默mò认rèn）

我看见他（直接宾语）

I see him

我给他一本书（间接宾语）

I give him a book

直接宾语代词（它）

it / them

主语省略

很hěn少shǎo（仅jǐn命mìng令líng句jù）

宾语省略

很hěn少shǎo（仅jǐn回huí指zhǐ）

动词省略

很hěn少shǎo（省shěng略lüè回huí答dá）

肯定命令（来！）

Come!

否定命令（别来！）

Don't come!

正式请求

Please come / Would you come?

约翰和玛丽一样高

John is as tall as Mary (as...as)

约翰不如玛丽高

John is not as tall as Mary

约翰跑得和玛丽一样快

John runs as fast as Mary

我是医生

I am a doctor

我累了

I am tired

我在马德里

I am in Madrid

John saw himself（本地约束）

John saw himself (himself = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself（必须是 Peter）

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

John saw him（him ≠ John）

John saw him (him ≠ John)

我想他会来

I think **(that)** he's coming

他说他会来

He said **(that)** he would come

很明显这是真的

It's obvious **(that)** it's true

基本被动

be + 过guò去qù分fēn词cí

施事提及

by + 施shī事shì

被动频率

非fēi常cháng普pǔ遍biàn

我看到他走了

I see that he left

我听说他走了

I heard he left

他好像走了

It seems he left

虽然下雨，我还是去

Although it is raining, I'll go

即使下雨，我也去

Even if it rains, I'll go

尽管下雨

Despite the rain / In spite of the rain

主要祖先

原yuán始shǐ日rì耳ěr曼màn语yǔ + 大dà量liáng拉lā丁dīng语yǔ/法fǎ语yǔ影yǐng响xiǎng

书写传统年龄

约yuē1,300年nián（从cóng公gōng元yuán约yuē700年nián）

词汇层次

盎àng格gé鲁lǔ-撒sā克kè逊xùn + 诺nuò曼màn法fǎ语yǔ + 拉lā丁dīng语yǔ + 希xī腊là语yǔ + 全quán球qiú借jiè词cí

名词复数

cat → cats（后hòu缀zhuì）

动词变位（时态）

walks, walked, walking（后hòu缀zhuì）

复合构词

raincoat（rain+coat）

从'去'演变而来的将来时

be going to + 动dòng词cí (I'm going to eat)

从处所演变而来的进行体

be + -ing（原yuán表biǎo处chǔ所suǒ'在zài……之zhī上shàng/之zhī处chǔ做zuò'）

从'有'演变而来的完成体

have + 过guò去qù分fēn词cí (I have eaten)

男孩 / 女孩

The boy / The girl (词cí汇huì性xìng别bié，非fēi语yǔ法fǎ)

太阳 / 月亮

The sun / The moon — 无wú性xìng别bié

医生（男/女）

A doctor (中zhōng性xìng；不bù分fēn性xìng别bié)

主格（主语）

I, you, he, she

宾格（直接宾语）

me, you, him, her, us, them

与格（间接宾语）

me, you, him, her, us, them (与yǔ宾bīn格gé相xiāng同tóng)

混合另一语言词汇

是shì（Franglais: 'je ne sais quoi'）

历史借词

大dà量liáng法fǎ语yǔ、拉lā丁dīng语yǔ（beef, restaurant）

语篇间转换

常cháng见jiàn（整zhěng句jù西xī班bān牙yá语yǔ）

此外 / 而且

furthermore / moreover / in addition / besides

但是 / 然而

however / nevertheless / nonetheless / yet

因此 / 所以

therefore / thus / hence / consequently / as a result

是非问句语调

句jù末mò升shēng调tiáo

wh-问句语调

句jù末mò降jiàng调tiáo

陈述句语调

句jù末mò降jiàng调tiáo

过来

Come here

过去

Go there

进来

Come in

散步

take a walk

洗澡

take a shower

做决定

make a decision

辅音音位总数

~24

送气对立

有yǒu（词cí首shǒu pʰ、tʰ、kʰ；s 后hòu p、t、k）

浊音对立

有yǒu（p/b、t/d、k/g、f/v、s/z 等děng）

比他高

taller than

最高

the tallest

跟他一样高

as tall as

和

and

但是

but / yet

或者

or

一些水

some of the water / a little water

我的一个朋友

one of my friends

一块蛋糕

a piece of cake

数过的名词（一本书）

a book / one book

指示词 + 名词

this book

性别系统

否fǒu

一杯茶

a cup of tea

一瓶水

a bottle of water

一块蛋糕

a piece of cake

不知道他来了没有

I don't know if he came

想知道他去哪儿了

I wonder where he went

告诉我你想要什么

Tell me what you want

他给我

He gives it to me

他看见他

He sees him

给我

Give it to me

我想吃饭

I want to eat (to eat = 非fēi限xiàn定dìng不bù定dìng式shì)

吃饭时，我听了音乐

While eating, I listened to music (eating = 非fēi限xiàn定dìng动dòng名míng词cí)

我吃完了

I have eaten (have = 限xiàn定dìng；eaten = 非fēi限xiàn定dìng过guò去qù分fēn词cí)

这本书（定指）

the book

一本书（不定指）

a book / an apple

一些书

some books

下雨了

It is raining

必须学习

One must study / You have to study

据说

They say / People say / It is said