Topics
IntermediateRelative Clauses
How relative clauses modify nouns in Spanish, English and Chinese.
Compare languages
English uses who, which, that, whose. Spanish uses que, quien, el cual, cuyo with subjunctive for uncertainty. Chinese uses 的 after the clause, with no relative pronoun.
Overview
Relative clauses modify nouns by adding extra information.
- Spanish: Uses que as the default relative pronoun. Quien for people after prepositions. El cual for formal disambiguation. Cuyo for possession (agrees with the possessed noun). The subjunctive is used when the antecedent is uncertain.
- English: Uses who for people, which for things, that for either. Whose for possession. Whom for object of preposition (formal). Restrictive vs non-restrictive distinction is strict.
- Chinese: Has no relative pronouns. The relative clause simply precedes the noun, linked by 的. The head noun can be omitted if context is clear.
Spanish
Que (default)
Que is the most common relative pronoun, used for people and things, as subject or object:
- El hombre que vino. (The man who came. — subject)
- El libro que leí. (The book that I read. — object)
- La mujer que conocí. (The woman whom I met. — object)
Quien (people, after prepositions)
Quien is used for people, especially after prepositions or in non-restrictive clauses:
- La mujer con quien hablé. (The woman with whom I spoke.)
- Mis amigos, quienes vinieron ayer. (My friends, who came yesterday.)
- El doctor a quien consulté. (The doctor whom I consulted.)
Note: After prepositions, quien is preferred over que in formal Spanish.
El cual / la cual (formal disambiguation)
Used to clarify which antecedent is being referred to:
- Hablé con el hermano de María, el cual es médico. (I spoke with Maria’s brother, who is a doctor.)
- Los libros, los cuales compré ayer. (The books, which I bought yesterday.)
El cual agrees in gender and number with the antecedent.
Cuyo (possessive)
Cuyo means “whose” and agrees with the possessed noun:
- El hombre cuya esposa es doctora. (The man whose wife is a doctor. — esposa is feminine)
- El autor cuyos libros leí. (The author whose books I read. — libros is masculine plural)
Subjunctive in relative clauses
When the antecedent is uncertain, hypothetical, or doesn’t exist yet, use the subjunctive:
- Busco un libro que sea interesante. (I’m looking for a book that is interesting. — subjunctive: the book may not exist)
- Conozco un libro que es interesante. (I know a book that is interesting. — indicative: the book exists)
Comma rules
- No commas for restrictive clauses (essential information):
- Los libros que compré son caros. (Only the books I bought are expensive.)
- Commas for non-restrictive clauses (extra information):
- Mis libros, que compré ayer, son caros. (I bought all my books yesterday — extra info.)
English
Who / whom (people)
- Subject: The man who came. / The man that came.
- Object: The man whom I met. / The man that I met. / The man I met.
- After preposition (formal): The man to whom I spoke.
- After preposition (informal): The man I spoke to.
Note: Whom is fading in everyday English. Most native speakers say who or omit the pronoun entirely.
Which (things)
- Restrictive: The book which I read. / The book that I read.
- Non-restrictive: My car, which is red, is fast.
Rule: Which is preferred for non-restrictive clauses. That is preferred for restrictive clauses.
Whose (possession)
- The man whose car was stolen.
- The company whose CEO resigned.
Whose can refer to people or things (despite prescriptive objections).
That vs which
| Restrictive | Non-restrictive | |
|---|---|---|
| Preferred | that / which | which |
| Commas | No | Yes |
| Example | The car that is red | My car, which is red, |
Important: That cannot be used in non-restrictive clauses:
- ❌ My car, that is red, is fast.
- ✅ My car, which is red, is fast.
Omission of relative pronoun
English can omit the relative pronoun when it is the object of the relative clause:
- The book (that) I read.
- The man (whom) I met.
- The city (which) I visited.
Cannot omit when the pronoun is the subject:
- ✅ The man who came.
- ❌ The man came. (This is a complete sentence, not a relative clause.)
Preposition stranding
English allows prepositions at the end of relative clauses:
- The man I spoke to. (informal)
- The man to whom I spoke. (formal)
Chinese
No relative pronouns
Chinese has no equivalent of who, which, or that. The relative clause precedes the noun, linked by 的:
- 来的人 (the person [who] came)
- 我读的书 (the book [that] I read)
- 他买的车 (the car [that] he bought)
Subject relatives
In subject relatives, the relativized subject is not kept:
- 来了的人 (the person who came — “came” has no explicit subject)
Compare to English: The man who came — “who” is the subject.
Object relatives
In object relatives, the object is also not kept:
- 我认识的人 (the person [whom] I know)
Compare to English: The man whom I know — “whom” is the object.
Possessive relatives
Chinese uses 的 after the possessor:
- 妻子是医生的男人 (the man whose wife is a doctor)
Literally: “wife is doctor’s man”
Headless relative clauses
Chinese can omit the head noun when it’s recoverable from context:
- 我喜欢的 (the one[s] I like)
- 红的 (the red one[s])
Prepositions stay with the verb
Chinese does not move prepositions to the front:
- 我跟他说话的人 (the person I spoke with)
Literally: “I with him spoke person”
Comparison at a glance
| Feature | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Relative pronoun | que, quien, el cual | who, which, that | None (clause + 的 + noun) |
| Possessive | cuyo (agrees) | whose (invariable) | 的 after possessor |
| Preposition handling | Preposition before relative | Can strand or front | Preposition stays with verb |
| Relativized subject | Kept (que/quien) | Kept (who/that) | Omitted |
| Relativized object | Omitted | Can omit | Omitted |
| Restrictive marker | Commas only | that vs which | No distinction |
| Subjunctive | Yes (uncertain antecedents) | No | No |
| Headless relatives | el que, lo que | what, whoever | clause + 的 |
Examples
In Context
| Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|
| El hombre que vino. | The man who came. | 来了的人 |
| El libro que leí. | The book (that) I read. | 我读的书 |
| La mujer con quien hablé. | The woman I spoke with / with whom I spoke. | 我跟她说话的女人 |
Common mistakes
-
English speakers learning Spanish: Using que after all prepositions: La mujer con que hablé → La mujer con quien hablé
-
Spanish speakers learning English: Using that in non-restrictive clauses: My car, that is red → My car, which is red
-
English speakers learning Chinese: Inserting relative pronouns: 我读的什么书 → 我读的书
-
Chinese speakers learning English: Keeping the relativized noun: The book I read it → The book (that) I read
Related topics
- Pronouns: How relative pronouns fit into the pronoun system
- Questions: How interrogative pronouns relate to relative pronouns
- Prepositions: How prepositions interact with relative clauses
- Word Order: How relative clauses fit into sentence structure
Examples
Subject relative (The man who came)
El hombre que vino
Object relative (The book that I read)
El libro que leí
Relativized subject kept
Yes (El hombre que vino)
Relativized object kept
No (El libro que leí)
Possessive relative (whose)
cuyo (agrees with possessed)
Preposition + relative
que / el cual (formal)
Restrictive vs non-restrictive
Both with que; commas for non-restrictive
Examples
Subject relative (The man who came)
The man who/that came
Object relative (The book that I read)
The book that/which I read
Relativized subject kept
Yes (The man who came)
Relativized object kept
No (The book I read)
Possessive relative (whose)
whose (invariable)
Preposition + relative
preposition + whom/which
Restrictive vs non-restrictive
that for restrictive; which for non-restrictive
Examples
Subject relative (The man who came)
来的人
Object relative (The book that I read)
我读的书
Relativized subject kept
No (来了的人 — 'came' has no subject)
Relativized object kept
No (我读的书)
Possessive relative (whose)
的 after possessor
Preposition + relative
preposition stays with verb
Restrictive vs non-restrictive
No formal distinction
Comparison at a glance
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subject relative (The man who came) | El hombre que vino | The man who/that came | 来的人 |
| Object relative (The book that I read) | El libro que leí | The book that/which I read | 我读的书 |
| Relativized subject kept | Yes (El hombre que vino) | Yes (The man who came) | No (来了的人 — 'came' has no subject) |
| Relativized object kept | No (El libro que leí) | No (The book I read) | No (我读的书) |
| Possessive relative (whose) | cuyo (agrees with possessed) | whose (invariable) | 的 after possessor |
| Preposition + relative | que / el cual (formal) | preposition + whom/which | preposition stays with verb |
| Restrictive vs non-restrictive | Both with que; commas for non-restrictive | that for restrictive; which for non-restrictive | No formal distinction |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Side-by-side comparison
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subject relative (The man who came) | El hombre que vino | The man who/that came | 来的人 |
| Object relative (The book that I read) | El libro que leí | The book that/which I read | 我读的书 |
| Relativized subject kept | Yes (El hombre que vino) | Yes (The man who came) | No (来了的人 — 'came' has no subject) |
| Relativized object kept | No (El libro que leí) | No (The book I read) | No (我读的书) |
| Possessive relative (whose) | cuyo (agrees with possessed) | whose (invariable) | 的 after possessor |
| Preposition + relative | que / el cual (formal) | preposition + whom/which | preposition stays with verb |
| Restrictive vs non-restrictive | Both with que; commas for non-restrictive | that for restrictive; which for non-restrictive | No formal distinction |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Examples in context
Subject relative (The man who came)
Spanish
El hombre que vino
English
The man who/that came
Chinese
来的人
Object relative (The book that I read)
Spanish
El libro que leí
English
The book that/which I read
Chinese
我读的书
Relativized subject kept
Spanish
Yes (El hombre que vino)
English
Yes (The man who came)
Chinese
No (来了的人 — 'came' has no subject)
Relativized object kept
Spanish
No (El libro que leí)
English
No (The book I read)
Chinese
No (我读的书)
Possessive relative (whose)
Spanish
cuyo (agrees with possessed)
English
whose (invariable)
Chinese
的 after possessor
Preposition + relative
Spanish
que / el cual (formal)
English
preposition + whom/which
Chinese
preposition stays with verb
Restrictive vs non-restrictive
Spanish
Both with que; commas for non-restrictive
English
that for restrictive; which for non-restrictive
Chinese
No formal distinction
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Key Takeaways
Spanish: Uses que as the default relative pronoun. Quien for people after prepositions. El cual for formal disambiguation. Cuyo for possession (agree.
English: Uses who for people, which for things, that for either. Whose for possession. Whom for object of preposition (formal). Restrictive vs non-re.
Chinese: Has no relative pronouns. The relative clause simply precedes the noun, linked by 的. The head noun can be omitted if context is clear.
Key concepts compared: Subject relative (The man who came), Object relative (The book that I read), Relativized subject kept.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why does Chinese use <ruby>的<rt>de</rt></ruby> for relative clauses while Spanish and English require relative pronouns like 'que' or 'who'?
How does Spanish use the subjunctive inside relative clauses to express uncertainty, and why does this confuse English and Chinese speakers?
Why do Chinese learners struggle with English restrictive vs. non-restrictive relative clauses?
References
- Nueva gramática de la lengua española — Real Academia Española / Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010
- The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language — Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge University Press, 2002
- A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language — Li & Thompson, 1981
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Last updated: June 4, 2026