Topics
IntermediateValency & Argument Structure
How Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive verbs.
Compare languages
Valency is the number of arguments a verb requires. Spanish and English have similar valency patterns. Chinese uses serial verb constructions and coverbs for complex argument structures.
Overview
Valency is the number of arguments a verb takes.
- Intransitive: 1 argument (subject) — sleep, arrive, fall
- Transitive: 2 arguments (subject + object) — read, eat, see
- Ditransitive: 3 arguments (subject + indirect object + direct object) — give, tell, show
Some verbs are labile (same form for transitive and intransitive): English break, open, melt. Spanish requires se for the intransitive. Chinese uses the same form.
Spanish
Intransitive
One argument (subject):
- Juan duerme. (John sleeps.)
- María llegó. (María arrived.)
- El niño cayó. (The child fell.)
Note: Spanish intransitive verbs never take a direct object.
Transitive
Two arguments:
- Juan lee un libro. (John reads a book.)
- María come una manzana. (María eats an apple.)
- Pedro ve la televisión. (Pedro watches TV.)
Ditransitive
Three arguments with a before the indirect object:
- Juan dio un libro a María. (John gave a book to María.)
- Le dije la verdad a Pedro. (I told Pedro the truth.)
- Me mostró las fotos. (He showed me the photos.)
Dative clitic duplication:
- Le di un libro a María. (I gave a book to María. — le = a María)
- Les dije la verdad a ellos. (I told them the truth.)
Note: The indirect object is often doubled by a clitic.
Reflexive (intransitivizing)
Many verbs become intransitive with se:
- Juan se cayó. (John fell down. — se adds completive)
- El vaso se rompió. (The glass broke. — se marks spontaneous)
- La puerta se abrió. (The door opened. — se marks spontaneous)
Causative/inchoative pairs
Spanish often uses different verbs:
| Causative (transitive) | Inchoative (intransitive) |
|---|---|
| romper (break) | romperse (break — spontaneous) |
| abrir (open) | abrirse (open — spontaneous) |
| quemar (burn) | quemarse (burn — spontaneous) |
| morir (die) | matar (kill) |
Note: Spanish uses se for spontaneous/uncaused events.
Unaccusative verbs
Verbs whose single argument is a patient:
- Llegó Juan. / Juan llegó. (John arrived. — patient = subject)
- Murió el perro. (The dog died. — patient = subject)
- Cayó la hoja. (The leaf fell. — patient = subject)
English
Intransitive
One argument:
- John sleeps.
- Mary arrived.
- The child fell.
Transitive
Two arguments:
- John reads a book.
- Mary eats an apple.
- Peter watches TV.
Ditransitive
Two patterns:
Pattern A: Subject + Indirect Object + Direct Object
- John gave Mary a book.
- I told him the truth.
- She showed me the photos.
Pattern B: Subject + Direct Object + to/for + Indirect Object
- John gave a book to Mary.
- I told the truth to him.
- She bought a gift for me.
Note: Some verbs allow only one pattern:
- ✅ John gave Mary a book. / ✅ John gave a book to Mary.
- ✅ John donated a book to the library. / ❌ John donated the library a book.
Labile verbs (causative alternation)
Same verb for transitive and intransitive:
| Causative (agent) | Inchoative (patient) |
|---|---|
| John opened the door. | The door opened. |
| John broke the vase. | The vase broke. |
| John melted the butter. | The butter melted. |
| John dropped the book. | The book dropped. |
Note: English allows this alternation freely.
Complex transitive (object + complement)
- John made Mary happy. (object + adjective)
- They elected him president. (object + noun)
- I found the book interesting. (object + adjective)
Prepositional verbs
Two arguments, one is a PP:
- John looks at Mary. (look = verb, at Mary = PP)
- Mary listens to music.
- Peter waits for the bus.
Phrasal verbs
- John turned on the light. (particle verb)
- Mary put away her clothes.
Chinese
Intransitive
One argument:
- 约翰睡觉。(John sleeps.)
- 玛丽来了。(María arrived.)
Transitive
Two arguments:
- 约翰读书。(John reads a book.)
- 玛丽吃苹果。(María eats an apple.)
Ditransitive
给 + recipient + object:
- 约翰给玛丽一本书。(John gave María a book.)
- 我告诉他真相。(I told him the truth.)
- 我给他买了礼物。(I bought him a gift.)
Note: 给 is required before the recipient.
Serial verb construction
Chinese uses serial verbs where English uses a single transitive verb:
- 我去医院看医生。(I go to the hospital see doctor = I went to the hospital to see a doctor.)
- 他拿书给我。(He took a book gave me = He took a book and gave it to me.)
把 construction (disposal)
When the object is affected/dislodged:
- 他把门开了。(He opened the door. — disposal)
- 我把书放在桌子上。(I put the book on the table.)
Note: 把 raises the object before the verb, marking affectedness.
Labile verbs
Chinese, like English, allows labile verbs:
- 约翰开了门。(John opened the door.)
- 门开了。(The door opened.)
- 约翰打破了花瓶。(John broke the vase.)
- 花瓶破了。(The vase broke.)
Coverbs as argument markers
Chinese coverbs (formerly verbs) mark arguments:
- 在北京学习 (study at Beijing = study in Beijing)
- 从学校回来 (from school return = return from school)
- 给朋友写信 (for friend write letter = write a letter to a friend)
Comparison at a glance
| Valency | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | Subject only | Subject only | Subject only |
| Transitive | S + DO | S + DO | S + O |
| Ditransitive | S + DO + a + IO | S + IO + DO / S + DO + to IO | S + 给 + recipient + O |
| Labile | Se marks intransitive | Same form | Same form |
| Object disposal | Clitic doubling | Word order | 把 + O + V |
| Causative | Hacer + infinitive | Make + bare infinitive | 让/叫 + O + V |
Examples in context
Give María a book
- ES: Juan dio un libro a María.
- EN: John gave Mary a book. / John gave a book to Mary.
- ZH: 约翰给玛丽一本书。
The door opened
- ES: La puerta se abrió.
- EN: The door opened.
- ZH: 门开了。
Put the book on the table
- ES: Juan puso el libro en la mesa.
- EN: John put the book on the table.
- ZH: 约翰把书放在桌子上。
Common mistakes
-
English speakers learning Spanish: John gave Mary a book → Juan dio un libro a María (a required)
-
Spanish speakers learning English: Juan gave a book María → John gave Mary a book (dative shift)
-
English speakers learning Chinese: 他给玛丽书 → 他给玛丽一本书 (给 + classifier required)
-
Chinese speakers learning Spanish: La puerta abrió → La puerta se abrió (se required)
Related topics
- Transitivity: How verb argument structure works
- Causatives: How causative constructions work
- Semantic Roles: How arguments map to syntax
- Passive: How passive voice changes valency
Examples
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)
Juan duerme (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)
Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)
Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)
La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)
Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)
Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)
Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)
El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)
Examples
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)
John sleeps (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)
John reads a book (subject + direct object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)
John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)
The door opened (patient subject, no marking)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)
John opened the door (agent + patient)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)
John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)
John broke the vase (agent + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)
The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)
Examples
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)
约翰睡觉 (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)
约翰读书 (subject + object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)
约翰给玛丽一本书 (subject + 给 + recipient + object)
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)
门开了 (patient subject, no marking)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)
约翰开了门 (agent + patient + 了)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)
约翰把书放在桌子上 (把 + object + verb + location)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)
约翰打破了花瓶 (agent + resultative verb + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)
花瓶破了 (labile verb, no marking)
Comparison at a glance
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument) | Juan duerme (subject only) | John sleeps (subject only) | 约翰睡觉 (subject only) |
| Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments) | Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object) | John reads a book (subject + direct object) | 约翰读书 (subject + object) |
| Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments) | Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a) | John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary | 约翰给玛丽一本书 (subject + 给 + recipient + object) |
| The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient) | La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se) | The door opened (patient subject, no marking) | 门开了 (patient subject, no marking) |
| John opened the door (causative: agent + patient) | Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient) | John opened the door (agent + patient) | 约翰开了门 (agent + patient + 了) |
| Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments) | Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP) | John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP) | 约翰把书放在桌子上 (把 + object + verb + location) |
| John broke the vase (causative transitive) | Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient) | John broke the vase (agent + patient) | 约翰打破了花瓶 (agent + resultative verb + patient) |
| The vase broke (intransitive alternation) | El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer) | The vase broke (labile verb, no marking) | 花瓶破了 (labile verb, no marking) |
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Side-by-side comparison
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument) | Juan duerme (subject only) | John sleeps (subject only) | 约翰睡觉 (subject only) |
| Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments) | Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object) | John reads a book (subject + direct object) | 约翰读书 (subject + object) |
| Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments) | Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a) | John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary | 约翰给玛丽一本书 (subject + 给 + recipient + object) |
| The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient) | La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se) | The door opened (patient subject, no marking) | 门开了 (patient subject, no marking) |
| John opened the door (causative: agent + patient) | Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient) | John opened the door (agent + patient) | 约翰开了门 (agent + patient + 了) |
| Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments) | Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP) | John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP) | 约翰把书放在桌子上 (把 + object + verb + location) |
| John broke the vase (causative transitive) | Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient) | John broke the vase (agent + patient) | 约翰打破了花瓶 (agent + resultative verb + patient) |
| The vase broke (intransitive alternation) | El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer) | The vase broke (labile verb, no marking) | 花瓶破了 (labile verb, no marking) |
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Examples in context
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)
Spanish
Juan duerme (subject only)
English
John sleeps (subject only)
Chinese
约翰睡觉 (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)
Spanish
Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)
English
John reads a book (subject + direct object)
Chinese
约翰读书 (subject + object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)
Spanish
Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)
English
John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary
Chinese
约翰给玛丽一本书 (subject + 给 + recipient + object)
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)
Spanish
La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)
English
The door opened (patient subject, no marking)
Chinese
门开了 (patient subject, no marking)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)
Spanish
Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)
English
John opened the door (agent + patient)
Chinese
约翰开了门 (agent + patient + 了)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)
Spanish
Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)
English
John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)
Chinese
约翰把书放在桌子上 (把 + object + verb + location)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)
Spanish
Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)
English
John broke the vase (agent + patient)
Chinese
约翰打破了花瓶 (agent + resultative verb + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)
Spanish
El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)
English
The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)
Chinese
花瓶破了 (labile verb, no marking)
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Key Takeaways
Key concepts compared: Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument), Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments), Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments).
Understanding valency & argument structure across languages prevents common transfer errors.
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Last updated: June 4, 2026