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AdvancedBinding & Reflexivity
How Spanish, English and Chinese constrain the relationship between pronouns and their antecedents.
Compare languages
Binding theory governs the relationship between anaphors (reflexives), pronouns, and full NPs with respect to their antecedents. English and Spanish require local antecedents for reflexives. Chinese allows long-distance reflexives.
Overview
Binding theory explains how pronouns and reflexives relate to their antecedents.
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Principle A: Anaphors (reflexives) must be bound in their local domain.
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Principle B: Pronouns must be free (not bound) in their local domain.
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Principle C: Full NPs must be free everywhere.
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Spanish: Local binding for reflexives (se, sí mismo). Pronouns (lo, le) must be free in local domain. Se is multifunctional (reflexive, reciprocal, passive, impersonal).
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English: Strict local binding for reflexives (himself). Long-distance reflexives are ungrammatical. Exceptional case marking extends the binding domain for some verbs.
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Chinese: 自己 allows long-distance binding in some contexts. Local binding is preferred but not strictly required. 互相 is strictly reciprocal.
Spanish
Reflexive binding (local)
- Juan se vio. (John saw himself. — se bound by Juan)
- María se lavó. (María washed herself.)
Emphatic:
- Juan lo hizo sí mismo. (John did it himself.)
- Ella misma lo dijo. (She herself said it.)
Long-distance prohibited
- Juan dijo que Pedro se vio. (Pedro saw himself. — se = Pedro, NOT Juan)
- Juan dijo que Pedro vio a él. (Pedro saw him. — él = someone else, NOT Juan)
Pronoun must be free locally
- Juan lo vio. (John saw him. — lo ≠ Juan)
- Juan dijo que Pedro lo vio. (Pedro saw him. — lo = someone else)
Note: To refer to Juan, use a full NP: Juan dijo que Pedro vio a Juan.
Se functions
| Function | Example |
|---|---|
| Reflexive | Juan se vio. |
| Reciprocal | Juan y María se ven. |
| Passive | Se venden casas. |
| Impersonal | Se dice que… |
| Inchoative | La puerta se abrió. |
English
Reflexive binding (strictly local)
- John saw himself. (himself = John)
- Mary bought herself a gift.
Long-distance prohibited
- John said that Peter saw himself. (himself = Peter, NOT John)
- John said that Peter saw him. (him = someone else, NOT John or Peter)
Exceptional case marking
Some verbs allow an extended binding domain:
- John believes himself to be smart. (himself = John, crosses clause boundary)
- John wants himself to win. (himself = John)
Pronoun must be free locally
- John loves him. (him ≠ John)
- John’s mother loves him. (him = John — non-local is OK)
Reflexive vs non-reflexive
| Context | Correct | Incorrect |
|---|---|---|
| Same subject-object | John saw himself. | |
| Different referent | John saw him. | — |
| Subject of finite clause | John thinks he is smart. | |
| Object of infinitive | John wants himself to win. | — |
Possessive reflexives
- John loves his own car. (emphatic)
- John saw his own reflection.
Chinese
Reflexive (local and long-distance)
Local:
- 他看见他自己。(He saw himself.)
Long-distance (possible in some contexts):
- 约翰说彼得知道他自己很聪明。(John said that Peter knows that he himself is smart. — 他自己 can refer to John in some dialects/contexts)
Note: Chinese 自己 allows long-distance binding more freely than English himself.
Pronoun binding
- 约翰说他很聪明。(John said that he is smart. — 他 = John or someone else, ambiguous)
Reciprocal
- 他们互相帮助。(They help each other.)
自己 as emphatic
- 我自己做的。(I myself did it.)
Comparison at a glance
| Feature | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Reflexive | se, sí mismo | myself/himself | 自己 |
| Local binding | Required | Required | Preferred |
| Long-distance | Prohibited | Prohibited | Allowed in some contexts |
| Reciprocal | se (same as reflexive) | each other / one another | 互相 |
| Pronoun locally | Must be free | Must be free | Ambiguous |
| Emphatic | sí mismo, él mismo | himself, his own | 自己 |
Examples in context
John saw himself
- ES: Juan se vio.
- EN: John saw himself.
- ZH: 约翰看见他自己。
Peter saw himself (not John)
- ES: Pedro se vio. (se = Pedro)
- EN: Peter saw himself. (himself = Peter)
- ZH: 彼得看见他自己。
John’s mother loves him
- ES: La madre de Juan lo quiere. (lo = Juan)
- EN: John’s mother loves him. (him = John)
- ZH: 约翰的妈妈爱他。
Common mistakes
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English speakers learning Spanish: Juan lo vio for reflexive → Juan se vio
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Spanish speakers learning English: John saw him (same person) → John saw himself
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English speakers learning Chinese: Assuming 自己 has strict local binding like himself → 自己 allows more flexibility
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Chinese speakers learning English: John believes himself is smart → John believes he is smart (himself cannot be subject of finite clause)
Related topics
- Anaphora: How reference works
- Reflexives: How reflexive constructions work
- Reciprocal: How reciprocal constructions work
- Pronouns: How pronoun systems work
Examples
John saw himself (local binding)
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)
Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)
La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)
Each other (reciprocal)
Juan y María se ven (se = each other)
John washed (intransitive / middle)
Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)
John believes himself to be smart
Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)
Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)
Examples
John saw himself (local binding)
John saw himself (himself = John, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)
John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)
John's mother loves him (him = John)
Each other (reciprocal)
John and Mary see each other
John washed (intransitive / middle)
John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)
John believes himself to be smart
John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)
Examples
John saw himself (local binding)
约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = John, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)
约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
约翰看见他 (他 = someone else, ambiguous in context)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)
约翰的妈妈爱他 (他 = John)
Each other (reciprocal)
约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = each other)
John washed (intransitive / middle)
约翰洗了澡 (洗澡 = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)
John believes himself to be smart
约翰相信他自己很聪明 (他自己 = John)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)
只有约翰投票给他自己 (他自己 = John, explicit)
Comparison at a glance
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| John saw himself (local binding) | Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local) | John saw himself (himself = John, local) | 约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = John, local) |
| John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter) | Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan) | John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John) | 约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, but can = John in some dialects) |
| John saw him (him ≠ John) | Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan) | John saw him (him ≠ John) | 约翰看见他 (他 = someone else, ambiguous in context) |
| John's mother loves him (him = John, not local) | La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan) | John's mother loves him (him = John) | 约翰的妈妈爱他 (他 = John) |
| Each other (reciprocal) | Juan y María se ven (se = each other) | John and Mary see each other | 约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = each other) |
| John washed (intransitive / middle) | Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative) | John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle) | 约翰洗了澡 (洗澡 = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed) |
| John believes himself to be smart | Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain) | John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case) | 约翰相信他自己很聪明 (他自己 = John) |
| Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus) | Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo) | Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only) | 只有约翰投票给他自己 (他自己 = John, explicit) |
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Side-by-side comparison
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| John saw himself (local binding) | Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local) | John saw himself (himself = John, local) | 约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = John, local) |
| John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter) | Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan) | John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John) | 约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, but can = John in some dialects) |
| John saw him (him ≠ John) | Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan) | John saw him (him ≠ John) | 约翰看见他 (他 = someone else, ambiguous in context) |
| John's mother loves him (him = John, not local) | La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan) | John's mother loves him (him = John) | 约翰的妈妈爱他 (他 = John) |
| Each other (reciprocal) | Juan y María se ven (se = each other) | John and Mary see each other | 约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = each other) |
| John washed (intransitive / middle) | Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative) | John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle) | 约翰洗了澡 (洗澡 = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed) |
| John believes himself to be smart | Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain) | John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case) | 约翰相信他自己很聪明 (他自己 = John) |
| Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus) | Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo) | Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only) | 只有约翰投票给他自己 (他自己 = John, explicit) |
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Examples in context
John saw himself (local binding)
Spanish
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)
English
John saw himself (himself = John, local)
Chinese
约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = John, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)
Spanish
Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)
English
John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)
Chinese
约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)
John saw him (him ≠ John)
Spanish
Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)
English
John saw him (him ≠ John)
Chinese
约翰看见他 (他 = someone else, ambiguous in context)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)
Spanish
La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)
English
John's mother loves him (him = John)
Chinese
约翰的妈妈爱他 (他 = John)
Each other (reciprocal)
Spanish
Juan y María se ven (se = each other)
English
John and Mary see each other
Chinese
约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = each other)
John washed (intransitive / middle)
Spanish
Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)
English
John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)
Chinese
约翰洗了澡 (洗澡 = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)
John believes himself to be smart
Spanish
Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)
English
John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)
Chinese
约翰相信他自己很聪明 (他自己 = John)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)
Spanish
Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)
English
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)
Chinese
只有约翰投票给他自己 (他自己 = John, explicit)
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Key Takeaways
Spanish: Local binding for reflexives (se, sí mismo). Pronouns (lo, le) must be free in local domain. Se is multifunctional (reflexive, reciprocal, p...
English: Strict local binding for reflexives (himself). Long-distance reflexives are ungrammatical. Exceptional case marking extends the binding doma...
Chinese: 自zì己jǐ allows long-distance binding in some contexts. Local binding is preferred but not strictly required. 互hù相xiāng is strictly reciprocal...
Key concepts compared: John saw himself (local binding), John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter), John saw him (him ≠ John).
Last updated: June 4, 2026