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Binding & Reflexivity

How Spanish, English and Chinese constrain the relationship between pronouns and their antecedents.

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Binding theory governs the relationship between anaphors (reflexives), pronouns, and full NPs with respect to their antecedents. English and Spanish require local antecedents for reflexives. Chinese allows long-distance reflexives.

Overview

Binding theory explains how pronouns and reflexives relate to their antecedents.

Principle A: Anaphors (reflexives) must be bound in their local domain.
Principle B: Pronouns must be free (not bound) in their local domain.
Principle C: Full NPs must be free everywhere.
Spanish: Local binding for reflexives (se, sí mismo). Pronouns (lo, le) must be free in local domain. Se is multifunctional (reflexive, reciprocal, passive, impersonal).
English: Strict local binding for reflexives (himself). Long-distance reflexives are ungrammatical. Exceptional case marking extends the binding domain for some verbs.
Chinese: 自zì己jǐ allows long-distance binding in some contexts. Local binding is preferred but not strictly required. 互hù相xiāng is strictly reciprocal.

Spanish

Reflexive binding (local)

Juan se vio. (John saw himself. — se bound by Juan)
María se lavó. (María washed herself.)

Emphatic:

Juan lo hizo sí mismo. (John did it himself.)
Ella misma lo dijo. (She herself said it.)

Long-distance prohibited

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio. (Pedro saw himself. — se = Pedro, NOT Juan)
Juan dijo que Pedro vio a él. (Pedro saw him. — él = someone else, NOT Juan)

Pronoun must be free locally

Juan lo vio. (John saw him. — lo ≠ Juan)
Juan dijo que Pedro lo vio. (Pedro saw him. — lo = someone else)

Note: To refer to Juan, use a full NP: Juan dijo que Pedro vio a Juan.

Se functions

Function	Example
Reflexive	Juan se vio.
Reciprocal	Juan y María se ven.
Passive	Se venden casas.
Impersonal	Se dice que…
Inchoative	La puerta se abrió.

English

Reflexive binding (strictly local)

John saw himself. (himself = John)
Mary bought herself a gift.

Long-distance prohibited

John said that Peter saw himself. (himself = Peter, NOT John)
John said that Peter saw him. (him = someone else, NOT John or Peter)

Exceptional case marking

Some verbs allow an extended binding domain:

John believes himself to be smart. (himself = John, crosses clause boundary)
John wants himself to win. (himself = John)

Pronoun must be free locally

John loves him. (him ≠ John)
John’s mother loves him. (him = John — non-local is OK)

Reflexive vs non-reflexive

Context	Correct	Incorrect
Same subject-object	John saw himself.	~~John saw him.~~
Different referent	John saw him.	—
Subject of finite clause	John thinks he is smart.	~~John thinks himself is smart.~~
Object of infinitive	John wants himself to win.	—

Possessive reflexives

John loves his own car. (emphatic)
John saw his own reflection.

Chinese

Reflexive (local and long-distance)

Local:

他tā看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ。(He saw himself.)

Long-distance (possible in some contexts):

约Yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé知zhī道dào他tā自zì己jǐ很hěn聪cōng明míng。(John said that Peter knows that he himself is smart. — 他tā自zì己jǐ can refer to John in some dialects/contexts)

Note: Chinese 自zì己jǐ allows long-distance binding more freely than English himself.

Pronoun binding

约Yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā很hěn聪cōng明míng。(John said that he is smart. — 他tā = John or someone else, ambiguous)

Reciprocal

他tā们men互hù相xiāng帮bāng助zhù。(They help each other.)

自zì己jǐ as emphatic

我wǒ自zì己jǐ做zuò的de。(I myself did it.)

Comparison at a glance

Feature	Spanish	English	Chinese
Reflexive	se, sí mismo	myself/himself	自zì己jǐ
Local binding	Required	Required	Preferred
Long-distance	Prohibited	Prohibited	Allowed in some contexts
Reciprocal	se (same as reflexive)	each other / one another	互hù相xiāng
Pronoun locally	Must be free	Must be free	Ambiguous
Emphatic	sí mismo, él mismo	himself, his own	自zì己jǐ

Examples

In Context

Spanish	English	Chinese
Juan se vio.	John saw himself.	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ。
Pedro se vio. (se = Pedro)	Peter saw himself. (himself = Peter)	彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ。
La madre de Juan lo quiere. (lo = Juan)	John’s mother loves him. (him = John)	约yuē翰hàn的de妈mā妈mā爱ài他tā。

Common mistakes

English speakers learning Spanish: Juan lo vio for reflexive → Juan se vio
Spanish speakers learning English: John saw him (same person) → John saw himself
English speakers learning Chinese: Assuming 自zì己jǐ has strict local binding like himself → 自zì己jǐ allows more flexibility
Chinese speakers learning English: John believes himself is smart → John believes he is smart (himself cannot be subject of finite clause)

Anaphora: How reference works
Reflexives: How reflexive constructions work
Reciprocal: How reciprocal constructions work
Pronouns: How pronoun systems work

Examples

John saw himself (local binding)

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)

John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)

La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)

Each other (reciprocal)

Juan y María se ven (se = each other)

John washed (intransitive / middle)

Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)

John believes himself to be smart

Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)

Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)

Examples

John saw himself (local binding)

John saw himself (himself = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)

John's mother loves him (him = John)

Each other (reciprocal)

John and Mary see each other

John washed (intransitive / middle)

John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)

John believes himself to be smart

John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)

Examples

John saw himself (local binding)

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā (他tā = someone else, ambiguous in context)

John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)

约yuē翰hàn的de妈mā妈mā爱ài他tā (他tā = John)

Each other (reciprocal)

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = each other)

John washed (intransitive / middle)

约yuē翰hàn洗xǐ了le澡zǎo (洗xǐ澡zǎo = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)

John believes himself to be smart

约yuē翰hàn相xiāng信xìn他tā自zì己jǐ很hěn聪cōng明míng (他tā自zì己jǐ = John)

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)

只zhī有yǒu约yuē翰hàn投tóu票piào给gěi他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, explicit)

Comparison at a glance

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
John saw himself (local binding)	Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)	John saw himself (himself = John, local)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)	Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)	John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)
John saw him (him ≠ John)	Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)	John saw him (him ≠ John)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā (他tā = someone else, ambiguous in context)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)	La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)	John's mother loves him (him = John)	约yuē翰hàn的de妈mā妈mā爱ài他tā (他tā = John)
Each other (reciprocal)	Juan y María se ven (se = each other)	John and Mary see each other	约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = each other)
John washed (intransitive / middle)	Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)	John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)	约yuē翰hàn洗xǐ了le澡zǎo (洗xǐ澡zǎo = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)
John believes himself to be smart	Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)	John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)	约yuē翰hàn相xiāng信xìn他tā自zì己jǐ很hěn聪cōng明míng (他tā自zì己jǐ = John)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)	Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)	Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)	只zhī有yǒu约yuē翰hàn投tóu票piào给gěi他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, explicit)

Side-by-side comparison

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
John saw himself (local binding)	Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)	John saw himself (himself = John, local)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, local)
John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)	Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)	John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)
John saw him (him ≠ John)	Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)	John saw him (him ≠ John)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā (他tā = someone else, ambiguous in context)
John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)	La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)	John's mother loves him (him = John)	约yuē翰hàn的de妈mā妈mā爱ài他tā (他tā = John)
Each other (reciprocal)	Juan y María se ven (se = each other)	John and Mary see each other	约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = each other)
John washed (intransitive / middle)	Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)	John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)	约yuē翰hàn洗xǐ了le澡zǎo (洗xǐ澡zǎo = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)
John believes himself to be smart	Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)	John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)	约yuē翰hàn相xiāng信xìn他tā自zì己jǐ很hěn聪cōng明míng (他tā自zì己jǐ = John)
Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)	Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)	Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)	只zhī有yǒu约yuē翰hàn投tóu票piào给gěi他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, explicit)

Examples in context

John saw himself (local binding)

Spanish

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = Juan, local)

English

John saw himself (himself = John, local)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, local)

John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter)

Spanish

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)

English

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, but can = John in some dialects)

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Spanish

Juan lo vio (lo = someone else, NOT Juan)

English

John saw him (him ≠ John)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā (他tā = someone else, ambiguous in context)

John's mother loves him (him = John, not local)

Spanish

La madre de Juan lo quiere (lo = Juan)

English

John's mother loves him (him = John)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn的de妈mā妈mā爱ài他tā (他tā = John)

Each other (reciprocal)

Spanish

Juan y María se ven (se = each other)

English

John and Mary see each other

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = each other)

John washed (intransitive / middle)

Spanish

Juan se lavó (se = reflexive/anticausative)

English

John washed (ambiguous: transitive with object omitted, or middle)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn洗xǐ了le澡zǎo (洗xǐ澡zǎo = wash-bath = bathe, no reflexive needed)

John believes himself to be smart

Spanish

Juan se cree inteligente (se = Juan, exceptional binding domain)

English

John believes himself to be smart (himself = John, exceptional case)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn相xiāng信xìn他tā自zì己jǐ很hěn聪cōng明míng (他tā自zì己jǐ = John)

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by focus)

Spanish

Solo Juan votó por él (él = Juan, bound by solo)

English

Only John voted for him (him = John, bound by only)

Chinese

只zhī有yǒu约yuē翰hàn投tóu票piào给gěi他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = John, explicit)

Key Takeaways

Spanish: Local binding for reflexives (se, sí mismo). Pronouns (lo, le) must be free in local domain. Se is multifunctional (reflexive, reciprocal, p.

English: Strict local binding for reflexives (himself). Long-distance reflexives are ungrammatical. Exceptional case marking extends the binding doma.

Chinese: 自zì己jǐ allows long-distance binding in some contexts. Local binding is preferred but not strictly required. 互hù相xiāng is strictly reciprocal.

Key concepts compared: John saw himself (local binding), John said Peter saw himself (must be Peter), John saw him (him ≠ John).

Frequently Asked Questions

Why does Chinese allow long-distance reflexives while English and Spanish do not?

English *himself* and Spanish *sí mismo* must refer to the nearest subject in the same clause: 'John said Peter saw himself' means Peter saw Peter. Chinese <ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> can refer to either Peter or John in the same sentence: <ruby>约<rt>yuē</rt></ruby><ruby>翰<rt>hàn</rt></ruby><ruby>说<rt>shuō</rt></ruby><ruby>彼<rt>bǐ</rt></ruby><ruby>得<rt>dé</rt></ruby><ruby>看<rt>kàn</rt></ruby><ruby>见<rt>jiàn</rt></ruby><ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby>. This long-distance binding is impossible in English and Spanish without restructuring the sentence. Chinese speakers learning English must learn to restrict the reflexive to the local subject, and English speakers learning Chinese must accept the ambiguity.

How does Spanish 'se' differ from English reflexive pronouns in its multifunctionality?

Spanish *se* is a single clitic with multiple roles: reflexive (*Juan se lava* = John washes himself), reciprocal (*Juan y María se ven* = John and Mary see each other), passive (*Se venden casas* = Houses are sold), and anticausative (*La puerta se abrió* = The door opened). English uses distinct forms for each: 'himself,' 'each other,' passive voice, and intransitive verbs. Chinese has no equivalent clitic; it uses independent words or zero marking. A Spanish speaker learning English must disaggregate *se* into specific constructions, while an English speaker learning Spanish must learn to infer the function of *se* from context.

Why can't English 'himself' be the subject of a finite clause?

English reflexives cannot occupy the subject position of a finite clause: 'John believes that himself is smart' is ungrammatical. The correct form is 'John believes that he is smart.' Spanish makes the same restriction: *Juan cree que él es inteligente* (not *sí mismo*). Chinese allows <ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> in subject-like positions more freely: <ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby><ruby>知<rt>zhī</rt></ruby><ruby>道<rt>dào</rt></ruby> (He himself knows). Chinese learners of English will incorrectly place 'himself' as a finite subject, and English learners of Chinese must learn that <ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> is more syntactically mobile than its English counterpart.

References

Nueva gramática de la lengua española — Real Academia Española / Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language — Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge University Press, 2002
A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language — Li & Thompson, 1981

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pronouns anaphora

Last updated: June 4, 2026

Overview

Spanish

Reflexive binding (local)

Long-distance prohibited

Pronoun must be free locally

Se functions

English

Reflexive binding (strictly local)

Long-distance prohibited

Exceptional case marking

Pronoun must be free locally

Reflexive vs non-reflexive

Possessive reflexives

Chinese

Reflexive (local and long-distance)

Pronoun binding

Reciprocal

自zì己jǐ as emphatic

Comparison at a glance

Examples

In Context

Common mistakes

Related topics

Examples

Examples

Examples

Comparison at a glance

Side-by-side comparison

Examples in context

Key Takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions

References