Topics

Advanced

Anaphora

How Spanish, English and Chinese refer back to previously mentioned entities.

Compare languages

Anaphora is the use of expressions that depend on prior context for their interpretation. All three languages use pronouns, but their systems differ in null subjects, reflexives, and binding domains.

Overview

Anaphora refers back to previously mentioned entities using pronouns, null elements, or other referring expressions.

Spanish: Pro-drop allows null subjects with anaphoric interpretation. Reflexive and reciprocal share the se form. Clitics (lo, la, le) are used for object anaphora.
English: Non-pro-drop; pronouns required. Reflexives (myself, yourself) are distinct from non-reflexives. Each other marks reciprocity.
Chinese: Pro-drop in discourse. Reflexives use 自zì己jǐ preceded by a pronoun. Reciprocals use 互hù相xiāng. No grammatical gender on pronouns.

Spanish

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Function	Form	Example
Subject	él/ella/ellos/ellas	Juan dijo que él vendría.
Direct object	lo/la/los/las	Vi a Juan. Lo vi.
Indirect object	le/les	Di un libro a María. Le di un libro.

Reflexive

Juan se vio. (John saw himself.)
María se lavó. (María washed herself.)

Reciprocal (same form as reflexive)

Juan y María se ven. (John and Mary see each other.)
Pedro y Luisa se quieren. (Pedro and Luisa love each other.)

Note: Context disambiguates reflexive from reciprocal.

Emphatic reflexive

Juan lo hizo sí mismo. (John did it himself.)
Ella misma lo dijo. (She herself said it.)

Possessive anaphora

El libro de Juan y el de María. (John’s book and María’s.)
Mi coche y el tuyo. (My car and yours.)

Null subject anaphora

Juan vino y (él) se fue. (John came and (he) left.)
Cuando (él) llegó, todos se fueron. (When (he) arrived, everyone left.)

English

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Function	Form	Example
Subject	he/she/they	John said that he would come.
Object	him/her/them	I saw John. I saw him.
Possessive	his/hers/theirs	This is John’s. It’s his.

Reflexive pronouns

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
John saw himself.
Mary bought herself a gift.

Reciprocal pronouns

each other (two entities)
one another (more than two — traditional distinction, often blurred)
John and Mary saw each other.

Emphatic reflexive

John himself did it.
She herself said it.

Pro-verbs (do so / do it / do the same)

John left early, and Mary did so too.
I think so. / I hope so. / I suppose so.

Possessive anaphora

John’s book and Mary’s. (Mary’s = Mary’s book)
My car and yours. (yours = your car)

One (pro-NP)

I want a red car, not a blue one.
Your idea is a good one.

Chinese

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Function	Form	Example
Subject/object	他tā/她tā/它tā/他tā们mén	约Yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái。
Possessive	他tā的de/她tā的de/他tā们mén的de	这zhè是shì他tā的de。

Note: 他tā = he/him, 她tā = she/her (written distinction only, same pronunciation).

Reflexive

Pronoun + 自zì己jǐ:

他tā自zì己jǐ (himself)
我wǒ自zì己jǐ (myself)
我wǒ们men自zì己jǐ (ourselves)
他tā看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ。(He saw himself.)

Reciprocal

互hù相xiāng (each other):

他tā们men互hù相xiāng帮bāng助zhù。(They help each other.)
约Yuē翰hàn和hé玛Mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn。(John and Mary look at each other.)

Null subject anaphora

A: 约Yuē翰hàn来lái了le吗ma？(Did John come?)
B: (他tā)来lái了le。((He) came.)

Possessive anaphora

约Yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛Mǎ丽lì的de。(John’s book and María’s.)

Note: The noun is omitted after 的de.

Pro-verb

这zhè么me做zuò (do so — this-way do)
那nà样yàng做zuò (do that way)

Comparison at a glance

Feature	Spanish	English	Chinese
Subject pronoun	Optional (pro-drop)	Required	Optional (discourse)
Reflexive	se / sí mismo	myself/himself/etc.	自zì己jǐ
Reciprocal	se (same as reflexive)	each other / one another	互hù相xiāng
Emphatic	sí mismo / él mismo	himself / she herself	他tā自zì己jǐ
Possessive pro-NP	el de / el mío	Mary’s / yours	玛mǎ丽lì的de
Pro-verb	lo hizo	did so	这zhè么mó做zuò
Null object	Limited	No	Common

Examples

In Context

Spanish	English	Chinese
Juan se vio. / Juan se vio a sí mismo.	John saw himself.	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ。
Juan y María se ven.	John and Mary see each other.	约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn。
el libro de Juan y el de María	John’s book and Mary’s	约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de

Common mistakes

Spanish speakers learning English: John saw him (same person) → John saw himself
English speakers learning Spanish: Juan y María se ven a sí mismos → Juan y María se ven (reciprocal, not reflexive)
English speakers learning Chinese: 他tā看kàn见jiàn自zì己jǐ (ambiguous) → 他tā看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (clear reflexive)
Chinese speakers learning English: John and Mary see themselves → John and Mary see each other (reciprocal)

Pronouns: How pronoun systems work
Reflexives: How reflexive constructions work
Reciprocal: How reciprocal constructions work
Pro-Drop: How null subjects work

Examples

John said he would come

Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)

John saw himself

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)

John's book and Mary's book

el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)

Each other

Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)

Do so (pro-verb)

Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)

One...the other

uno...el otro

Null subject in coordinated clause

Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)

Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)

Examples

John said he would come

John said that he would come (he = John or other)

John saw himself

John saw himself (himself = reflexive)

John's book and Mary's book

John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)

Each other

John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)

Do so (pro-verb)

John did so (so = pro-form)

One...the other

one...the other

Null subject in coordinated clause

John came and he left (he = same or different)

Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

Examples

John said he would come

约yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái (他tā ambiguous)

John saw himself

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = reflexive)

John's book and Mary's book

约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de (的de = possessive marker, noun omitted)

Each other

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = reciprocal)

Do so (pro-verb)

约yuē翰hàn这zhè么mó做zuò了le (这zhè么mó = so, 做zuò = do)

One...the other

一yī个gè...另lìng一yī个gè

Null subject in coordinated clause

约yuē翰hàn来lái了le，他tā又yòu走zǒu了le (他tā explicit or null)

Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)

约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, NOT John)

Comparison at a glance

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
John said he would come	Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)	John said that he would come (he = John or other)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái (他tā ambiguous)
John saw himself	Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)	John saw himself (himself = reflexive)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = reflexive)
John's book and Mary's book	el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)	John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)	约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de (的de = possessive marker, noun omitted)
Each other	Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)	John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)	约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = reciprocal)
Do so (pro-verb)	Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)	John did so (so = pro-form)	约yuē翰hàn这zhè么mó做zuò了le (这zhè么mó = so, 做zuò = do)
One...the other	uno...el otro	one...the other	一yī个gè...另lìng一yī个gè
Null subject in coordinated clause	Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)	John came and he left (he = same or different)	约yuē翰hàn来lái了le，他tā又yòu走zǒu了le (他tā explicit or null)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)	Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)	John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, NOT John)

Side-by-side comparison

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
John said he would come	Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)	John said that he would come (he = John or other)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái (他tā ambiguous)
John saw himself	Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)	John saw himself (himself = reflexive)	约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = reflexive)
John's book and Mary's book	el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)	John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)	约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de (的de = possessive marker, noun omitted)
Each other	Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)	John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)	约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = reciprocal)
Do so (pro-verb)	Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)	John did so (so = pro-form)	约yuē翰hàn这zhè么mó做zuò了le (这zhè么mó = so, 做zuò = do)
One...the other	uno...el otro	one...the other	一yī个gè...另lìng一yī个gè
Null subject in coordinated clause	Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)	John came and he left (he = same or different)	约yuē翰hàn来lái了le，他tā又yòu走zǒu了le (他tā explicit or null)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)	Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)	John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)	约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, NOT John)

Examples in context

John said he would come

Spanish

Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)

English

John said that he would come (he = John or other)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn说shuō他tā会huì来lái (他tā ambiguous)

John saw himself

Spanish

Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)

English

John saw himself (himself = reflexive)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = reflexive)

John's book and Mary's book

Spanish

el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)

English

John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn的de书shū和hé玛mǎ丽lì的de (的de = possessive marker, noun omitted)

Each other

Spanish

Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)

English

John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn和hé玛mǎ丽lì互hù相xiāng看kàn (互hù相xiāng = reciprocal)

Do so (pro-verb)

Spanish

Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)

English

John did so (so = pro-form)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn这zhè么mó做zuò了le (这zhè么mó = so, 做zuò = do)

One...the other

Spanish

uno...el otro

English

one...the other

Chinese

一yī个gè...另lìng一yī个gè

Null subject in coordinated clause

Spanish

Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)

English

John came and he left (he = same or different)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn来lái了le，他tā又yòu走zǒu了le (他tā explicit or null)

Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)

Spanish

Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)

English

John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn说shuō彼bǐ得dé看kàn见jiàn他tā自zì己jǐ (他tā自zì己jǐ = Peter, NOT John)

Key Takeaways

Spanish: Pro-drop allows null subjects with anaphoric interpretation. Reflexive and reciprocal share the se form. Clitics (lo, la, le) are used for o

English: Non-pro-drop; pronouns required. Reflexives (myself, yourself) are distinct from non-reflexives. Each other marks reciprocity.

Chinese: Pro-drop in discourse. Reflexives use 自zì己jǐ preceded by a pronoun. Reciprocals use 互hù相xiāng. No grammatical gender on pronouns.

Key concepts compared: John said he would come, John saw himself, John's book and Mary's book.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is reflexive binding different in Spanish, English, and Chinese?

English requires a reflexive pronoun when the subject and object are the same person: 'John saw himself.' Spanish uses *se* or a reflexive pronoun (*Juan se vio*). Chinese uses <ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> preceded by a pronoun: <ruby>约<rt>yuē</rt></ruby><ruby>翰<rt>hàn</rt></ruby><ruby>看<rt>kàn</rt></ruby><ruby>见<rt>jiàn</rt></ruby><ruby>他<rt>tā</rt></ruby><ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby>. The crucial difference is that Chinese <ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> must be preceded by a pronoun, whereas English and Spanish can stand alone as reflexives.

How does pro-drop in Spanish create ambiguity that English avoids?

In *Juan dijo que vendría*, the omitted subject of *vendría* could be Juan or someone else. In English, 'John said that he would come' forces the pronoun *he*, which is ambiguous but present. In Spanish, the ambiguity is deeper because the subject is simply absent. Chinese has the same issue: <ruby>约<rt>yuē</rt></ruby><ruby>翰<rt>hàn</rt></ruby><ruby>说<rt>shuō</rt></ruby><ruby>会<rt>huì</rt></ruby><ruby>来<rt>lái</rt></ruby> leaves the subject of 'come' entirely to context.

What is the binding domain, and why does it matter for pronoun choice?

A pronoun must refer to something in its binding domain — typically the same clause. In English, 'John said that he would come' allows *he* to refer to John or someone else, but 'John said that himself would come' is ungrammatical because *himself* requires a closer antecedent. Spanish *sí mismo* and Chinese <ruby>自<rt>zì</rt></ruby><ruby>己<rt>jǐ</rt></ruby> follow similar but not identical constraints. These subtle differences cause errors in translation and interpretation.

References

Nueva gramática de la lengua española — Real Academia Española / Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language — Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge University Press, 2002
A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language — Li & Thompson, 1981

Read this first

pronouns

Last updated: June 4, 2026

Overview

Spanish

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Reflexive

Reciprocal (same form as reflexive)

Emphatic reflexive

Possessive anaphora

Null subject anaphora

English

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Reflexive pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns

Emphatic reflexive

Pro-verbs (do so / do it / do the same)

Possessive anaphora

One (pro-NP)

Chinese

Personal pronouns (anaphoric)

Reflexive

Reciprocal

Null subject anaphora

Possessive anaphora

Pro-verb

Comparison at a glance

Examples

In Context

Common mistakes

Related topics

Examples

Examples

Examples

Comparison at a glance

Side-by-side comparison

Examples in context

Key Takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions

References