Topics
IntermediateFocus
How Spanish, English and Chinese mark the most important information in a sentence.
Compare languages
Focus is the most important or new information in a sentence. Spanish uses word order and clefts. English uses stress, clefts, and do-support. Chinese uses 是...的 clefts and adverbs like 就, 才, 连...都.
Overview
Focus marks the most important or new information in an utterance.
- Spanish: Uses word order flexibility, stress, clefts (fue…quien), and particles (sí, solo, ni siquiera). Pro-drop allows subject omission, making focused subjects more prominent.
- English: Uses stress (pitch accent), clefts (it was…who/that), pseudo-clefts (what…was), do-support for verum focus, and particles (only, even, just).
- Chinese: Uses the 是…的 cleft construction, adverbs (就, 才, 只), and the 连…都/也 construction. Stress is less available due to the tonal system.
Spanish
Stress focus
Any element can receive stress:
- JUAN lo rompió. (JOHN broke it. — focus on subject)
- Juan LO rompió. (John broke IT. — focus on object)
- Juan lo ROMPIÓ. (John BROKE it. — focus on verb)
- AYER Juan lo rompió. (YESTERDAY John broke it. — focus on time)
Cleft sentences
Subject cleft:
- Fue JUAN quien lo rompió. (It was JOHN who broke it.)
- Fue MARÍA la que ganó. (It was MARÍA who won.)
Object cleft:
- Fue EL JARRÓN lo que rompió Juan. (It was THE VASE that John broke.)
- Fue EN MADRID donde nos conocimos. (It was IN MADRID where we met.)
Time cleft:
- Fue AYER cuando llegó. (It was YESTERDAY when he arrived.)
Pseudo-clefts
- Lo que me molesta es el ruido. (What bothers me is the noise.)
- Lo que quiero es paz. (What I want is peace.)
- El que vino fue Juan. (The one who came was Juan.)
Verum focus (sí)
- Juan sí lo rompió. (John DID break it.)
- Yo sí quiero ir. (I DO want to go.)
- Sí que es verdad. (It IS true.)
Exclusive focus (solo / únicamente)
- Solo Juan lo sabía. (Only John knew.)
- Únicamente María vino. (Only María came.)
- Vino nada más que Juan. (Only Juan came.)
Additive focus (incluso / hasta)
- Incluso Juan no pudo hacerlo. (Even John couldn’t do it.)
- Hasta María lo intentó. (Even María tried it.)
- Ni siquiera Juan… (Not even John…)
Negative focus (ni…ni / tampoco)
- Ni Juan ni María vinieron. (Neither John nor María came.)
- María tampoco vino. (María didn’t come either.)
Fronting without cleft
- A JUAN le di el libro. (To JOHN I gave the book.)
- EL LIBRO le di a Juan. (THE BOOK I gave to Juan.)
English
Stress focus (pitch accent)
- JOHN broke it. (not someone else)
- John broke IT. (not something else)
- John BROKE it. (he didn’t steal it)
- John broke it YESTERDAY. (not today)
It-cleft
- It was JOHN who broke it.
- It was THE VASE that John broke.
- It was YESTERDAY that he arrived.
- It was IN MADRID where we met.
Pseudo-cleft
- What I want is peace.
- What bothers me is the noise.
- The one who came was John.
- All I need is love.
Reversed pseudo-cleft
- *Peace is what I want.
- *John is the one who came.
Do-support for verum focus
- John DID break it.
- I DO want to go.
- It IS true.
- She DOES speak French.
Note: Do-support is the only way to mark verum focus unambiguously in English.
Only (exclusive focus)
- Only John knew.
- John only broke the vase. (he didn’t do anything else)
- John broke only the vase. (he didn’t break anything else)
Even (additive focus)
- Even John couldn’t do it.
- John couldn’t do it, even with help.
- Not even John knew.
Also / too (additive)
- John also broke it.
- John broke it too.
Inversion for focus
- Never have I seen such beauty.
- Rarely does he complain.
- Only then did I understand.
Chinese
是…的 cleft (most common)
- 是约翰打破的。(It was JOHN who broke it.)
- 约翰打破的是花瓶。(What John broke was THE VASE.)
- 是昨天来的。(It was YESTERDAY that he came.)
Note: 是 marks the focused element; 的 nominalizes the presupposition.
就 (immediate focus)
- 他就要这个。(He wants exactly THIS.)
- 我就知道他会来。(I KNEW he would come.)
才 (delayed/conditional focus)
- 他昨天才走。(He ONLY left yesterday.)
- 我十点才睡觉。(I didn’t sleep until 10 o’clock.)
只 / 只有 (exclusive)
- 只有约翰知道。(Only John knew.)
- 我只想要一杯水。(I only want a glass of water.)
连…都/也 (additive focus)
- 连约翰都不知道。(Even John doesn’t know.)
- 连一杯水也没有。(Not even a glass of water.)
确实 / 真的 (verum focus)
- 他确实打破了。(He DID break it.)
- 这是真的。(It IS true.)
Topic fronting (focus on comment)
- 这本书，我已经读过了。(This book, I have already read. — book = topic, read = focus)
Comparison at a glance
| Focus type | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cleft | Fue…quien | It was…who/that | 是…的 |
| Pseudo-cleft | Lo que…es | What…is | …的是 |
| Verum | Sí que | Do-support | 确实/真的 |
| Exclusive | Solo / únicamente | Only | 只/只有 |
| Additive | Incluso / ni siquiera | Even | 连…都/也 |
| Stress | Pitch accent | Pitch accent | Limited (tones block) |
| Fronting | Flexible order | Rare / marked | Topic-comment |
Examples
In Context
| Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|
| Fue Juan quien lo rompió. | It was John who broke it. | 是约翰打破的。 |
| Solo Juan lo sabía. | Only John knew. | 只有约翰知道。 |
| Ni siquiera Juan pudo hacerlo. | Even John couldn’t do it. | 连约翰都做不到。 |
Common mistakes
-
English speakers learning Spanish: Es Juan que lo rompió → Fue Juan quien lo rompió
-
Spanish speakers learning English: Juan sí lo rompió → John DID break it (do-support)
-
English speakers learning Chinese: 约翰打破它 (stress) → 是约翰打破的 (cleft construction)
-
Chinese speakers learning English: Only John know → Only John knew (agreement)
Related topics
- Cleft Emphasis: How cleft constructions work
- Topic-Comment: How information structure works
- Word Order: How syntax conveys focus
- Inversion: How fronting works
Examples
It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)
Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien)
JOHN broke it (stress)
JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking)
It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)
Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió
John DID break it (verum focus)
Juan SÍ lo rompió (sí + verb)
Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus)
Ni siquiera JUAN pudo hacerlo (ni siquiera)
Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus)
Solo JUAN lo sabía (solo)
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
Lo que rompió Juan fue EL JARRÓN (free relative + ser)
Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus)
Ni un vaso de agua (ni un)
Examples
It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)
It was JOHN who broke it (it-cleft)
JOHN broke it (stress)
JOHN broke it (stress on subject)
It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)
It was THE VASE that John broke
John DID break it (verum focus)
John DID break it (do-stress)
Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus)
Even JOHN couldn't do it (even)
Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus)
Only JOHN knew (only)
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus)
Not even a GLASS of water (not even)
Examples
It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)
是约翰打破的 (是...的 cleft)
JOHN broke it (stress)
是约翰打破的 / 约翰才打破的 (是/才 for focus)
It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)
约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是 + focus)
John DID break it (verum focus)
约翰确实打破了 (确实 adverb)
Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus)
连约翰都做不到 (连...都)
Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus)
只有约翰知道 (只有)
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是)
Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus)
一杯水都没有 (连 omitted, 都 emphasizes)
Comparison at a glance
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| It was JOHN who broke it (cleft) | Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien) | It was JOHN who broke it (it-cleft) | 是约翰打破的 (是...的 cleft) |
| JOHN broke it (stress) | JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking) | JOHN broke it (stress on subject) | 是约翰打破的 / 约翰才打破的 (是/才 for focus) |
| It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft) | Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió | It was THE VASE that John broke | 约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是 + focus) |
| John DID break it (verum focus) | Juan SÍ lo rompió (sí + verb) | John DID break it (do-stress) | 约翰确实打破了 (确实 adverb) |
| Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus) | Ni siquiera JUAN pudo hacerlo (ni siquiera) | Even JOHN couldn't do it (even) | 连约翰都做不到 (连...都) |
| Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus) | Solo JUAN lo sabía (solo) | Only JOHN knew (only) | 只有约翰知道 (只有) |
| What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft) | Lo que rompió Juan fue EL JARRÓN (free relative + ser) | What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft) | 约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是) |
| Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus) | Ni un vaso de agua (ni un) | Not even a GLASS of water (not even) | 一杯水都没有 (连 omitted, 都 emphasizes) |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Side-by-side comparison
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| It was JOHN who broke it (cleft) | Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien) | It was JOHN who broke it (it-cleft) | 是约翰打破的 (是...的 cleft) |
| JOHN broke it (stress) | JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking) | JOHN broke it (stress on subject) | 是约翰打破的 / 约翰才打破的 (是/才 for focus) |
| It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft) | Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió | It was THE VASE that John broke | 约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是 + focus) |
| John DID break it (verum focus) | Juan SÍ lo rompió (sí + verb) | John DID break it (do-stress) | 约翰确实打破了 (确实 adverb) |
| Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus) | Ni siquiera JUAN pudo hacerlo (ni siquiera) | Even JOHN couldn't do it (even) | 连约翰都做不到 (连...都) |
| Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus) | Solo JUAN lo sabía (solo) | Only JOHN knew (only) | 只有约翰知道 (只有) |
| What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft) | Lo que rompió Juan fue EL JARRÓN (free relative + ser) | What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft) | 约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是) |
| Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus) | Ni un vaso de agua (ni un) | Not even a GLASS of water (not even) | 一杯水都没有 (连 omitted, 都 emphasizes) |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Examples in context
It was JOHN who broke it (cleft)
Spanish
Fue JUAN quien lo rompió (ser + quien)
English
It was JOHN who broke it (it-cleft)
Chinese
是约翰打破的 (是...的 cleft)
JOHN broke it (stress)
Spanish
JUAN lo rompió (stress on subject, no special marking)
English
JOHN broke it (stress on subject)
Chinese
是约翰打破的 / 约翰才打破的 (是/才 for focus)
It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft)
Spanish
Fue EL JARRÓN lo que Juan rompió
English
It was THE VASE that John broke
Chinese
约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是 + focus)
John DID break it (verum focus)
Spanish
Juan SÍ lo rompió (sí + verb)
English
John DID break it (do-stress)
Chinese
约翰确实打破了 (确实 adverb)
Even JOHN couldn't do it (additive focus)
Spanish
Ni siquiera JUAN pudo hacerlo (ni siquiera)
English
Even JOHN couldn't do it (even)
Chinese
连约翰都做不到 (连...都)
Only JOHN knew (exclusive focus)
Spanish
Solo JUAN lo sabía (solo)
English
Only JOHN knew (only)
Chinese
只有约翰知道 (只有)
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
Spanish
Lo que rompió Juan fue EL JARRÓN (free relative + ser)
English
What John broke was the VASE (pseudo-cleft)
Chinese
约翰打破的是花瓶 (verb + 的是)
Not even a GLASS of water (scalar focus)
Spanish
Ni un vaso de agua (ni un)
English
Not even a GLASS of water (not even)
Chinese
一杯水都没有 (连 omitted, 都 emphasizes)
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Key Takeaways
Spanish: Uses word order flexibility, stress, clefts (fue... quien), and particles (sí, solo, ni siquiera). Pro-drop allows subject omission, making f.
English: Uses stress (pitch accent), clefts (it was... who/that), pseudo-clefts (what... was), do-support for verum focus, and particles (only, even, j.
Chinese: Uses the 是... 的 cleft construction, adverbs (就, 才, 只), and the 连... 都/也 construction. Stress is less available due to th.
Key concepts compared: It was JOHN who broke it (cleft), JOHN broke it (stress), It was THE VASE that John broke (object cleft).
Frequently Asked Questions
Why does English use 'do' for verum focus while Spanish and Chinese do not?
How does the Chinese 是...的 (shì...de) cleft differ from English it-clefts?
What is a pseudo-cleft, and why is it more common in English than in Spanish or Chinese?
References
- Nueva gramática de la lengua española — Real Academia Española / Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010
- The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language — Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge University Press, 2002
- A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language — Li & Thompson, 1981
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Last updated: June 4, 2026