Topics

Intermediate

Valency & Argument Structure

How Spanish, English and Chinese distinguish transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive verbs.

Compare languages

Valency is the number of arguments a verb requires. Spanish and English have similar valency patterns. Chinese uses serial verb constructions and coverbs for complex argument structures.

Overview

Valency is the number of arguments a verb takes.

Intransitive: 1 argument (subject) — sleep, arrive, fall
Transitive: 2 arguments (subject + object) — read, eat, see
Ditransitive: 3 arguments (subject + indirect object + direct object) — give, tell, show

Some verbs are labile (same form for transitive and intransitive): English break, open, melt. Spanish requires se for the intransitive. Chinese uses the same form.

Spanish

Intransitive

One argument (subject):

Juan duerme. (John sleeps.)
María llegó. (María arrived.)
El niño cayó. (The child fell.)

Note: Spanish intransitive verbs never take a direct object.

Transitive

Two arguments:

Juan lee un libro. (John reads a book.)
María come una manzana. (María eats an apple.)
Pedro ve la televisión. (Pedro watches TV.)

Ditransitive

Three arguments with a before the indirect object:

Juan dio un libro a María. (John gave a book to María.)
Le dije la verdad a Pedro. (I told Pedro the truth.)
Me mostró las fotos. (He showed me the photos.)

Dative clitic duplication:

Le di un libro a María. (I gave a book to María. — le = a María)
Les dije la verdad a ellos. (I told them the truth.)

Note: The indirect object is often doubled by a clitic.

Reflexive (intransitivizing)

Many verbs become intransitive with se:

Juan se cayó. (John fell down. — se adds completive)
El vaso se rompió. (The glass broke. — se marks spontaneous)
La puerta se abrió. (The door opened. — se marks spontaneous)

Causative/inchoative pairs

Spanish often uses different verbs:

Causative (transitive)	Inchoative (intransitive)
romper (break)	romperse (break — spontaneous)
abrir (open)	abrirse (open — spontaneous)
quemar (burn)	quemarse (burn — spontaneous)
morir (die)	matar (kill)

Note: Spanish uses se for spontaneous/uncaused events.

Unaccusative verbs

Verbs whose single argument is a patient:

Llegó Juan. / Juan llegó. (John arrived. — patient = subject)
Murió el perro. (The dog died. — patient = subject)
Cayó la hoja. (The leaf fell. — patient = subject)

English

Intransitive

One argument:

John sleeps.
Mary arrived.
The child fell.

Transitive

Two arguments:

John reads a book.
Mary eats an apple.
Peter watches TV.

Ditransitive

Two patterns:

Pattern A: Subject + Indirect Object + Direct Object

John gave Mary a book.
I told him the truth.
She showed me the photos.

Pattern B: Subject + Direct Object + to/for + Indirect Object

John gave a book to Mary.
I told the truth to him.
She bought a gift for me.

Note: Some verbs allow only one pattern:

✅ John gave Mary a book. / ✅ John gave a book to Mary.
✅ John donated a book to the library. / ❌ John donated the library a book.

Labile verbs (causative alternation)

Same verb for transitive and intransitive:

Causative (agent)	Inchoative (patient)
John opened the door.	The door opened.
John broke the vase.	The vase broke.
John melted the butter.	The butter melted.
John dropped the book.	The book dropped.

Note: English allows this alternation freely.

Complex transitive (object + complement)

John made Mary happy. (object + adjective)
They elected him president. (object + noun)
I found the book interesting. (object + adjective)

Prepositional verbs

Two arguments, one is a PP:

John looks at Mary. (look = verb, at Mary = PP)
Mary listens to music.
Peter waits for the bus.

Phrasal verbs

John turned on the light. (particle verb)
Mary put away her clothes.

Chinese

Intransitive

One argument:

约Yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jiào。(John sleeps.)
玛Mǎ丽lì来lái了le。(María arrived.)

Transitive

Two arguments:

约Yuē翰hàn读dú书shū。(John reads a book.)
玛Mǎ丽lì吃chī苹píng果guǒ。(María eats an apple.)

Ditransitive

给gěi + recipient + object:

约Yuē翰hàn给gěi玛Mǎ丽lì一yì本běn书shū。(John gave María a book.)
我wǒ告gào诉su他tā真zhēn相xiàng。(I told him the truth.)
我wǒ给gěi他tā买mǎi了le礼lǐ物wù。(I bought him a gift.)

Note: 给gěi is required before the recipient.

Serial verb construction

Chinese uses serial verbs where English uses a single transitive verb:

我wǒ去qù医yī院yuàn看kàn医yī生shēng。(I go to the hospital see doctor = I went to the hospital to see a doctor.)
他tā拿ná书shū给gěi我wǒ。(He took a book gave me = He took a book and gave it to me.)

把bǎ construction (disposal)

When the object is affected/dislodged:

他tā把bǎ门mén开kāi了le。(He opened the door. — disposal)
我wǒ把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zi上shàng。(I put the book on the table.)

Note: 把bǎ raises the object before the verb, marking affectedness.

Labile verbs

Chinese, like English, allows labile verbs:

约Yuē翰hàn开kāi了le门mén。(John opened the door.)
门mén开kāi了le。(The door opened.)
约Yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng。(John broke the vase.)
花huā瓶píng破pò了le。(The vase broke.)

Coverbs as argument markers

Chinese coverbs (formerly verbs) mark arguments:

在zài北běi京jīng学xué习xí (study at Beijing = study in Beijing)
从cóng学xué校xiào回huí来lái (from school return = return from school)
给gěi朋péng友yǒu写xiě信xìn (for friend write letter = write a letter to a friend)

Comparison at a glance

Valency	Spanish	English	Chinese
Intransitive	Subject only	Subject only	Subject only
Transitive	S + DO	S + DO	S + O
Ditransitive	S + DO + a + IO	S + IO + DO / S + DO + to IO	S + 给gěi + recipient + O
Labile	Se marks intransitive	Same form	Same form
Object disposal	Clitic doubling	Word order	把bǎ + O + V
Causative	Hacer + infinitive	Make + bare infinitive	让ràng/叫jiào + O + V

Examples

In Context

Spanish	English	Chinese
Juan dio un libro a María.	John gave Mary a book. / John gave a book to Mary.	约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū。
La puerta se abrió.	The door opened.	门mén开kāi了le。
Juan puso el libro en la mesa.	John put the book on the table.	约yuē翰hàn把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zǐ上shàng。

Common mistakes

English speakers learning Spanish: John gave Mary a book → Juan dio un libro a María (a required)
Spanish speakers learning English: Juan gave a book María → John gave Mary a book (dative shift)
English speakers learning Chinese: 他tā给gěi玛mǎ丽lì书shū → 他tā给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (给gěi + classifier required)
Chinese speakers learning Spanish: La puerta abrió → La puerta se abrió (se required)

Transitivity: How verb argument structure works
Causatives: How causative constructions work
Semantic Roles: How arguments map to syntax
Passive: How passive voice changes valency

Examples

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

Juan duerme (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)

The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)

La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)

John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)

Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)

Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)

Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)

John broke the vase (causative transitive)

Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)

The vase broke (intransitive alternation)

El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)

Examples

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

John sleeps (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

John reads a book (subject + direct object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary

The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)

The door opened (patient subject, no marking)

John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)

John opened the door (agent + patient)

Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)

John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)

John broke the vase (causative transitive)

John broke the vase (agent + patient)

The vase broke (intransitive alternation)

The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)

Examples

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

约yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jué (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū (subject + object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (subject + 给gěi + recipient + object)

The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)

门mén开kāi了le (patient subject, no marking)

John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)

约yuē翰hàn开kāi了le门mén (agent + patient + 了le)

Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)

约yuē翰hàn把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zǐ上shàng (把bǎ + object + verb + location)

John broke the vase (causative transitive)

约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng (agent + resultative verb + patient)

The vase broke (intransitive alternation)

花huā瓶píng破pò了le (labile verb, no marking)

Comparison at a glance

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)	Juan duerme (subject only)	John sleeps (subject only)	约yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jué (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)	Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)	John reads a book (subject + direct object)	约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū (subject + object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)	Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)	John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary	约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (subject + 给gěi + recipient + object)
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)	La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)	The door opened (patient subject, no marking)	门mén开kāi了le (patient subject, no marking)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)	Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)	John opened the door (agent + patient)	约yuē翰hàn开kāi了le门mén (agent + patient + 了le)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)	Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)	John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)	约yuē翰hàn把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zǐ上shàng (把bǎ + object + verb + location)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)	Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)	John broke the vase (agent + patient)	约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng (agent + resultative verb + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)	El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)	The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)	花huā瓶píng破pò了le (labile verb, no marking)

Side-by-side comparison

Grammar concepts	Spanish	English	Chinese
Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)	Juan duerme (subject only)	John sleeps (subject only)	约yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jué (subject only)
Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)	Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)	John reads a book (subject + direct object)	约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū (subject + object)
Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)	Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)	John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary	约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (subject + 给gěi + recipient + object)
The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)	La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)	The door opened (patient subject, no marking)	门mén开kāi了le (patient subject, no marking)
John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)	Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)	John opened the door (agent + patient)	约yuē翰hàn开kāi了le门mén (agent + patient + 了le)
Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)	Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)	John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)	约yuē翰hàn把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zǐ上shàng (把bǎ + object + verb + location)
John broke the vase (causative transitive)	Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)	John broke the vase (agent + patient)	约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng (agent + resultative verb + patient)
The vase broke (intransitive alternation)	El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)	The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)	花huā瓶píng破pò了le (labile verb, no marking)

Examples in context

Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument)

Spanish

Juan duerme (subject only)

English

John sleeps (subject only)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn睡shuì觉jué (subject only)

Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments)

Spanish

Juan lee un libro (subject + direct object)

English

John reads a book (subject + direct object)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn读dú书shū (subject + object)

Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments)

Spanish

Juan da un libro a María (S + DO + IO with a)

English

John gives Mary a book (S + IO + DO) / John gives a book to Mary

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn给gěi玛mǎ丽lì一yī本běn书shū (subject + 给gěi + recipient + object)

The door opened (unaccusative: 1 argument, patient)

Spanish

La puerta se abrió (patient subject + se)

English

The door opened (patient subject, no marking)

Chinese

门mén开kāi了le (patient subject, no marking)

John opened the door (causative: agent + patient)

Spanish

Juan abrió la puerta (agent + patient)

English

John opened the door (agent + patient)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn开kāi了le门mén (agent + patient + 了le)

Put the book on the table (locative: 3 arguments)

Spanish

Juan puso el libro en la mesa (S + DO + PP)

English

John put the book on the table (S + DO + PP)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn把bǎ书shū放fàng在zài桌zhuō子zǐ上shàng (把bǎ + object + verb + location)

John broke the vase (causative transitive)

Spanish

Juan rompió el jarrón (agent + patient)

English

John broke the vase (agent + patient)

Chinese

约yuē翰hàn打dǎ破pò了le花huā瓶píng (agent + resultative verb + patient)

The vase broke (intransitive alternation)

Spanish

El jarrón se rompió (se = detransitivizer)

English

The vase broke (labile verb, no marking)

Chinese

花huā瓶píng破pò了le (labile verb, no marking)

Key Takeaways

Key concepts compared: Sleep (intransitive: 1 argument), Read a book (transitive: 2 arguments), Give Mary a book (ditransitive: 3 arguments).

Understanding valency & argument structure across languages prevents common transfer errors.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why does Spanish require a prepositional indirect object ('a María') while English allows double-object ditransitives ('gave Mary a book') and Chinese uses serial verb constructions?

Spanish ditransitive verbs require the recipient to be marked with the preposition *a*: *Juan dio un libro A María* (John gave a book to María). English allows two patterns: 'John gave a book TO María' (prepositional) or 'John gave María a book' (double object). Chinese uses a serial construction: <ruby>约<rt>yuē</rt></ruby><ruby>翰<rt>hàn</rt></ruby><ruby>给<rt>gěi</rt></ruby><ruby>玛<rt>mǎ</rt></ruby><ruby>丽<rt>lì</rt></ruby><ruby>一<rt>yī</rt></ruby><ruby>本<rt>běn</rt></ruby><ruby>书<rt>shū</rt></ruby> (John give María one book) with no preposition and a different word order. An English speaker learning Spanish will produce *Juan dio María un libro* (omitting *a*), which is ungrammatical. A Chinese speaker learning Spanish will also omit *a*. An English speaker learning Chinese will insert prepositions where none are needed.

How does Chinese use coverbs to manage argument structures that English and Spanish handle with prepositions or case marking?

Chinese coverbs function like prepositions but retain verbal properties: <ruby>在<rt>zài</rt></ruby> (be at) in <ruby>在<rt>zài</rt></ruby><ruby>北<rt>běi</rt></ruby><ruby>京<rt>jīng</rt></ruby><ruby>工<rt>gōng</rt></ruby><ruby>作<rt>zuò</rt></ruby> (at Beijing work = work in Beijing). English uses a pure preposition: 'work IN Beijing.' Spanish uses a preposition: *trabajar EN Beijing.* The Chinese coververb can be negated and modified like a verb, while English and Spanish prepositions cannot. An English speaker learning Chinese will treat <ruby>在<rt>zài</rt></ruby> as a preposition and will be confused by its verbal behavior. A Chinese speaker learning English will omit prepositions: 'I work Beijing' (ungrammatical) because Chinese coververbs do not require a separate preposition.

Why do English and Spanish speakers learning Chinese struggle with the verb-noun compounding that expresses what their languages handle with simple intransitive verbs?

Chinese expresses many basic intransitive actions with verb-noun compounds: <ruby>睡<rt>shuì</rt></ruby><ruby>觉<rt>jué</rt></ruby> (sleep-sleep = sleep), <ruby>吃<rt>chī</rt></ruby><ruby>饭<rt>fàn</rt></ruby> (eat-rice = eat a meal), <ruby>洗<rt>xǐ</rt></ruby><ruby>澡<rt>zǎo</rt></ruby> (wash-bath = bathe). English and Spanish use simple intransitive verbs: 'sleep,' *dormir*; 'eat,' *comer.* The Chinese compound is not optional: <ruby>睡<rt>shuì</rt></ruby> alone means 'to sleep' in a general sense, but <ruby>睡<rt>shuì</rt></ruby><ruby>觉<rt>jué</rt></ruby> is the natural collocation for 'go to sleep.' An English speaker learning Chinese will use bare verbs and sound telegraphic: <ruby>我<rt>wǒ</rt></ruby><ruby>睡<rt>shuì</rt></ruby> (I sleep) is possible but <ruby>我<rt>wǒ</rt></ruby><ruby>睡<rt>shuì</rt></ruby><ruby>觉<rt>jué</rt></ruby> (I sleep-sleep) is more natural. A Spanish speaker will make the same error. Both must learn that Chinese valency is partly lexicalized in compounds.

References

Nueva gramática de la lengua española — Real Academia Española / Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, 2010
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language — Huddleston & Pullum, Cambridge University Press, 2002
A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Chinese Language — Li & Thompson, 1981

Read this first

transitivity verb-tenses

Last updated: June 4, 2026

Overview

Spanish

Intransitive

Transitive

Ditransitive

Reflexive (intransitivizing)

Causative/inchoative pairs

Unaccusative verbs

English

Intransitive

Transitive

Ditransitive

Labile verbs (causative alternation)

Complex transitive (object + complement)

Prepositional verbs

Phrasal verbs

Chinese

Intransitive

Transitive

Ditransitive

Serial verb construction

把bǎ construction (disposal)

Labile verbs

Coverbs as argument markers

Comparison at a glance

Examples

In Context

Common mistakes

Related topics

Examples

Examples

Examples

Comparison at a glance

Side-by-side comparison

Examples in context

Key Takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions

References