Topics
AdvancedAnaphora
How Spanish, English and Chinese refer back to previously mentioned entities.
Compare languages
Anaphora is the use of expressions that depend on prior context for their interpretation. All three languages use pronouns, but their systems differ in null subjects, reflexives, and binding domains.
Overview
Anaphora refers back to previously mentioned entities using pronouns, null elements, or other referring expressions.
- Spanish: Pro-drop allows null subjects with anaphoric interpretation. Reflexive and reciprocal share the se form. Clitics (lo, la, le) are used for object anaphora.
- English: Non-pro-drop; pronouns required. Reflexives (myself, yourself) are distinct from non-reflexives. Each other marks reciprocity.
- Chinese: Pro-drop in discourse. Reflexives use 自己 preceded by a pronoun. Reciprocals use 互相. No grammatical gender on pronouns.
Spanish
Personal pronouns (anaphoric)
| Function | Form | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Subject | él/ella/ellos/ellas | Juan dijo que él vendría. |
| Direct object | lo/la/los/las | Vi a Juan. Lo vi. |
| Indirect object | le/les | Di un libro a María. Le di un libro. |
Reflexive
- Juan se vio. (John saw himself.)
- María se lavó. (María washed herself.)
Reciprocal (same form as reflexive)
- Juan y María se ven. (John and Mary see each other.)
- Pedro y Luisa se quieren. (Pedro and Luisa love each other.)
Note: Context disambiguates reflexive from reciprocal.
Emphatic reflexive
- Juan lo hizo sí mismo. (John did it himself.)
- Ella misma lo dijo. (She herself said it.)
Possessive anaphora
- El libro de Juan y el de María. (John’s book and María’s.)
- Mi coche y el tuyo. (My car and yours.)
Null subject anaphora
- Juan vino y (él) se fue. (John came and (he) left.)
- Cuando (él) llegó, todos se fueron. (When (he) arrived, everyone left.)
English
Personal pronouns (anaphoric)
| Function | Form | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Subject | he/she/they | John said that he would come. |
| Object | him/her/them | I saw John. I saw him. |
| Possessive | his/hers/theirs | This is John’s. It’s his. |
Reflexive pronouns
- myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
- John saw himself.
- Mary bought herself a gift.
Reciprocal pronouns
- each other (two entities)
- one another (more than two — traditional distinction, often blurred)
- John and Mary saw each other.
Emphatic reflexive
- John himself did it.
- She herself said it.
Pro-verbs (do so / do it / do the same)
- John left early, and Mary did so too.
- I think so. / I hope so. / I suppose so.
Possessive anaphora
- John’s book and Mary’s. (Mary’s = Mary’s book)
- My car and yours. (yours = your car)
One (pro-NP)
- I want a red car, not a blue one.
- Your idea is a good one.
Chinese
Personal pronouns (anaphoric)
| Function | Form | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Subject/object | 他/她/它/他们 | 约翰说他会来。 |
| Possessive | 他的/她的/他们的 | 这是他的。 |
Note: 他 = he/him, 她 = she/her (written distinction only, same pronunciation).
Reflexive
Pronoun + 自己:
-
他自己 (himself)
-
我自己 (myself)
-
我们自己 (ourselves)
-
他看见他自己。(He saw himself.)
Reciprocal
互相 (each other):
- 他们互相帮助。(They help each other.)
- 约翰和玛丽互相看。(John and Mary look at each other.)
Null subject anaphora
- A: 约翰来了吗？(Did John come?)
- B: (他)来了。((He) came.)
Possessive anaphora
- 约翰的书和玛丽的。(John’s book and María’s.)
Note: The noun is omitted after 的.
Pro-verb
- 这么做 (do so — this-way do)
- 那样做 (do that way)
Comparison at a glance
| Feature | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subject pronoun | Optional (pro-drop) | Required | Optional (discourse) |
| Reflexive | se / sí mismo | myself/himself/etc. | 自己 |
| Reciprocal | se (same as reflexive) | each other / one another | 互相 |
| Emphatic | sí mismo / él mismo | himself / she herself | 他自己 |
| Possessive pro-NP | el de / el mío | Mary’s / yours | 玛丽的 |
| Pro-verb | lo hizo | did so | 这么做 |
| Null object | Limited | No | Common |
Examples in context
John saw himself
- ES: Juan se vio. / Juan se vio a sí mismo.
- EN: John saw himself.
- ZH: 约翰看见他自己。
John and Mary see each other
- ES: Juan y María se ven.
- EN: John and Mary see each other.
- ZH: 约翰和玛丽互相看。
John’s book and Mary’s
- ES: el libro de Juan y el de María
- EN: John’s book and Mary’s
- ZH: 约翰的书和玛丽的
Common mistakes
-
Spanish speakers learning English: John saw him (same person) → John saw himself
-
English speakers learning Spanish: Juan y María se ven a sí mismos → Juan y María se ven (reciprocal, not reflexive)
-
English speakers learning Chinese: 他看见自己 (ambiguous) → 他看见他自己 (clear reflexive)
-
Chinese speakers learning English: John and Mary see themselves → John and Mary see each other (reciprocal)
Related topics
- Pronouns: How pronoun systems work
- Reflexives: How reflexive constructions work
- Reciprocal: How reciprocal constructions work
- Pro-Drop: How null subjects work
Examples
John said he would come
Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)
John saw himself
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)
John's book and Mary's book
el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)
Each other
Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)
Do so (pro-verb)
Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)
One...the other
uno...el otro
Null subject in coordinated clause
Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)
Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)
Examples
John said he would come
John said that he would come (he = John or other)
John saw himself
John saw himself (himself = reflexive)
John's book and Mary's book
John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)
Each other
John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)
Do so (pro-verb)
John did so (so = pro-form)
One...the other
one...the other
Null subject in coordinated clause
John came and he left (he = same or different)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)
John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)
Examples
John said he would come
约翰说他会来 (他 ambiguous)
John saw himself
约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = reflexive)
John's book and Mary's book
约翰的书和玛丽的 (的 = possessive marker, noun omitted)
Each other
约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = reciprocal)
Do so (pro-verb)
约翰这么做了 (这么 = so, 做 = do)
One...the other
一个...另一个
Null subject in coordinated clause
约翰来了，他又走了 (他 explicit or null)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)
约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, NOT John)
Comparison at a glance
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| John said he would come | Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous) | John said that he would come (he = John or other) | 约翰说他会来 (他 ambiguous) |
| John saw himself | Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic) | John saw himself (himself = reflexive) | 约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = reflexive) |
| John's book and Mary's book | el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun) | John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun) | 约翰的书和玛丽的 (的 = possessive marker, noun omitted) |
| Each other | Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se) | John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal) | 约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = reciprocal) |
| Do so (pro-verb) | Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb) | John did so (so = pro-form) | 约翰这么做了 (这么 = so, 做 = do) |
| One...the other | uno...el otro | one...the other | 一个...另一个 |
| Null subject in coordinated clause | Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent) | John came and he left (he = same or different) | 约翰来了，他又走了 (他 explicit or null) |
| Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent) | Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan) | John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John) | 约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, NOT John) |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Side-by-side comparison
| Grammar concepts | Spanish | English | Chinese |
|---|---|---|---|
| John said he would come | Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous) | John said that he would come (he = John or other) | 约翰说他会来 (他 ambiguous) |
| John saw himself | Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic) | John saw himself (himself = reflexive) | 约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = reflexive) |
| John's book and Mary's book | el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun) | John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun) | 约翰的书和玛丽的 (的 = possessive marker, noun omitted) |
| Each other | Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se) | John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal) | 约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = reciprocal) |
| Do so (pro-verb) | Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb) | John did so (so = pro-form) | 约翰这么做了 (这么 = so, 做 = do) |
| One...the other | uno...el otro | one...the other | 一个...另一个 |
| Null subject in coordinated clause | Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent) | John came and he left (he = same or different) | 约翰来了，他又走了 (他 explicit or null) |
| Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent) | Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan) | John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John) | 约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, NOT John) |
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Examples in context
John said he would come
Spanish
Juan dijo que él vendría (él optional, ambiguous)
English
John said that he would come (he = John or other)
Chinese
约翰说他会来 (他 ambiguous)
John saw himself
Spanish
Juan se vio a sí mismo (se = reflexive, sí mismo = emphatic)
English
John saw himself (himself = reflexive)
Chinese
约翰看见他自己 (他自己 = reflexive)
John's book and Mary's book
Spanish
el libro de Juan y el de María (el de = pronoun)
English
John's book and Mary's (Mary's = possessive pronoun)
Chinese
约翰的书和玛丽的 (的 = possessive marker, noun omitted)
Each other
Spanish
Juan y María se ven (reciprocal = same as reflexive se)
English
John and Mary see each other (each other = reciprocal)
Chinese
约翰和玛丽互相看 (互相 = reciprocal)
Do so (pro-verb)
Spanish
Juan lo hizo (lo = pronoun, hizo = verb)
English
John did so (so = pro-form)
Chinese
约翰这么做了 (这么 = so, 做 = do)
One...the other
Spanish
uno...el otro
English
one...the other
Chinese
一个...另一个
Null subject in coordinated clause
Spanish
Juan vino y ___ se fue (null subject, same referent)
English
John came and he left (he = same or different)
Chinese
约翰来了，他又走了 (他 explicit or null)
Binding domain (reflexive must have local antecedent)
Spanish
Juan dijo que Pedro se vio a sí mismo (sí mismo = Pedro, NOT Juan)
English
John said that Peter saw himself (himself = Peter, NOT John)
Chinese
约翰说彼得看见他自己 (他自己 = Peter, NOT John)
Select at least one language to view comparisons
Key Takeaways
Spanish: Pro-drop allows null subjects with anaphoric interpretation. Reflexive and reciprocal share the se form. Clitics (lo, la, le) are used for o...
English: Non-pro-drop; pronouns required. Reflexives (myself, yourself) are distinct from non-reflexives. Each other marks reciprocity.
Chinese: Pro-drop in discourse. Reflexives use 自zì己jǐ preceded by a pronoun. Reciprocals use 互hù相xiāng. No grammatical gender on pronouns.
Key concepts compared: John said he would come, John saw himself, John's book and Mary's book.
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Last updated: June 4, 2026